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This is a listing of all 585 Primary Sources		"Stonewall" (Thomas Jonathan) Jackson (1824-63) Resource Type: image-file Confederate general. Jackson, a Virginian, was a strong Unionist, but when his state seceded he followed. He received his nickname at the first battle of Bull Run (or Manassas, 1861) by resisting (standing "like a stone wall") the efforts of Union troops to penetrate the Confederate forces. Assigned to command in the Shenandoah Valley in Virginia (1861), he defeated John C. Frémont's troops (1862), which were subsequently reinforced but decisively defeated by Jackson the next month. He was accidentally shot and killed by his own men at Chancellorsville, Virginia (1863). 1964 Presidential Election Results Resource Type: image/chart Lyndon Baines Johnson (1908–73), who assumed the presidency in November 1963 after the assassination of John F. Kennedy (1917–63), was elected to a full term in 1964 by a landslide electoral margin over U.S. Senator Barry Goldwater (1909–98). 1968 Presidential Election Results Resource Type: image/chart Richard M. Nixon (1913–94) became the 37th President of the United States in November 1968, during one of the most tumultuous and divisive periods in American history. 1980 Presidential Election Results Resource Type: image/chart Ronald Reagan (1911– ) became the 40th American president after a landslide electoral victory over President Jimmy Carter (1924– ). Abigail Adams to John Adams Resource Type: text/letter In 1776, Abigail Adams wrote a letter to her husband, John Adams, who was then attending the Continental Congress in Philadelphia. Abraham Lincoln (1809-65) Resource Type: image-file President of the United States (1861–65) during the Civil War. Although not an abolitionist, Lincoln denounced slavery as morally wrong and firmly opposed both the Dred Scott decision and the expansion of slavery into the territories. Nominated for president by the Republican Party in 1860, he won the election but with a minority of the vote. Lincoln's victory provoked the secession of Southern states, which in 1861 led to the outbreak of the Civil War. In 1863 Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring free the slaves in states that were "in rebellion" (but not freeing slaves in slaveholding states that had remained in the Union). The Gettysburg Address, which he made in 1863 at the dedication of the soldiers' cemetery at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, would become one of the most quoted of modern speeches. Lincoln was reelected in 1864 but was assassinated the following spring, only days after Lee's surrender had effectively marked the end of the Civil War. Abundance Resource Type: image-file Poster from the U.S. Housing Authority (1940s). Abundance Resource Type: image-file New York City housing project (c. 1950). Abundance: The American Middle Class Resource Type: image-file Scene of typical middle-American life. Account of a Former Slave Resource Type: text/biography In his 1846 autobiographical account, Lewis Clarke, a former slave, answers questions about the manner in which he lived before he gained his freedom in 1841. Account of The Retreat From New York and the Affair of Harlem Heights Resource Type: text/journal entry David Humphreys, an aide-de-camp to George Washington (1732–99), describes the Battle of Harlem Heights, one of several skirmishes that took place in August 1776, before the Americans abandoned New York for New Jersey. A Compromise Solution In this memorandum to President Johnson (1908–73), George Ball (1909–94), undersecretary of state, discusses the role of the U.S. military in South Vietnam. A Defense of British Property Rights Resource Type: text/letter Alexander Hamilton (c. 1755–1804)—who would become a leading political theorist and delegate to the Constitutional Convention—after American independence, as a New York City attorney, defended the property rights of New Yorkers who had remained loyal to the Crown during the War for Independence, arguing that America's fiscal health depended on the fair and equal enforcement of the law. African American Cultures Resource Type: image-file The Old Plantation. Painting by an unknown artist (c. 1800). A spirited gathering of African Americans dancing to and playing music. African American Soldiers Resource Type: text/letter This was one of many battles in which the new African American troops distinguished themselves. African American Troops Liberating Slaves Resource Type: image/illustration As the African American presence in the Northern war effort increased, so did the chances of freeing slaves from Southern plantations. A House Divided Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Abraham Lincoln accepts the Republican Party's nomination for U.S. senator from Illinois. Lincoln ran against Stephen A. Douglas, the proponent of popular sovereignty. Allure of the New Resource Type: image-file Archibald MacLeish, Librarian of Congress Allure of the New Resource Type: image-file Nobel Prize winners and physicists Ernest Orlando Lawrence and Arthur Holly Compton, Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development Vannevar Bush, President of Harvard University James Bryant Conant, President of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Karl T. Compton, and investment banker Alfred Loomis gather for a meeting at Loomis' private laboratory. A Man Knows a Man Resource Type: image/cartoon Military service, especially in battle, was often seen as a rite of passage that turned boys into men. Physical scarring or maiming served as the visible symbol of manhood tested and earned through combat. American Ambivalence Resource Type: image-file Jacket of the American edition of Harold Frederic's The Damnation of Theron Ware, or Illumination (New York: Stone and Kimball, 1896). American Indians Occupy Alcatraz In 1968, American Indians claiming a long history of oppression at the hands of white Americans organized the American Indian Movement (AIM). AIM and other groups staged a series of actions to further their cause. From 1969 to 1971, the organization Indians of All Tribes occupied the abandoned federal penitentiary on Alcatraz Island. In the proclamation excerpted here they explain their reasons. American Nationhood: Jefferson and Washington Resource Type: image-file Benjamin Banneker American Nationhood: Jefferson and Washington Resource Type: image-file Thomas Jefferson A Model of Christian Charity Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document While crossing the Atlantic Ocean aboard the Arbella in 1630, John Winthrop (1588–1649), the leader of a band of Puritans, composed this sermon setting out God's divine plan for "the city on the hill" Winthrop would establish in New England for the Massachusetts Bay Colony. An Act for Enfranchising Ned Griffin Resource Type: text/legislation In the wake of the Revolution, many Southern states liberalized their provisions for manumission. This came to an end between 1810 and 1820, as Southern lawmakers restricted, and in some cases barred, manumission. A National Problem Resource Type: image-file Mounted police disperse demonstrators during a conflict over racial integration of schools, Boston (1974). A National Problem Resource Type: image-file Burnt-out block in the South Bronx, New York City (1977). Andrew Williams Affidavit of Petition, 1853 Resource Type: image/other One of Seneca Village's first property owners, African American Andrew Williams appealed to the State Supreme Court of New York for a reconsideration of the assessment of his property, which was to be seized by the city for the construction of Central Park. A New Public Park Resource Type: text/newspaper American poet and editor of the New York Evening Post, William Cullen Bryant (1794–1878) in 1844 published in this editorial the first call for the creation of a large public park in New York City. Anne Hutchinson Is Banished Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Anne Hutchinson (1591–1643), a Puritan woman living in Boston, was charged with heresy, excommunicated, and banished from the colony in 1637. The conclusion of the court examination follows. Annual Report of the Interments Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Dr. John Hoskins Griscom (1809–74), a Quaker physician, founded the New York Academy of Medicine and pioneered the field of public health. His advocacy for sanitation, medical care, and adequate housing led to the great reforms of the Progressive Era after the Civil War. Arcadian or Pastoral State Resource Type: image/painting The American painter Thomas Cole (1801–48) founded the Hudson River School of painting, which celebrated the majesty of America's wilderness and pastoral landscapes as evidence of its virtue. A Slave Account Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Henry Bibb was born a slave in Kentucky in 1815. He escaped to Canada in 1837 and subsequently wrote an account of his experiences. A Slave Funeral Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Charles Ball was a slave in western Maryland. In the following excerpt, he describes a slave funeral. Average Annual Value of Colonial Exports Resource Type: text/chart Tobacco, rice, and indigo were the most valuable items exported from Britain's North American colonies. New England's climate and short growing season prevented profitable cultivation of tobacco, rice, and indigo. A Vietnam Reappraisal In this article, Clark Clifford (1906–98), secretary of defense, examines the U.S. military plan. A Whig Freeholder on Emancipation Resource Type: text/letter Pennsylvania, like many of the Northern states, established gradual emancipation. Battle of Brooklyn Resource Type: text/letter An officer who fought with George Washington (1732–99) at the Battle of Brooklyn describes the colonials' defeat in late August 1776 and retreat to New Jersey. Benjamin Banneker (1731–1806) Resource Type: image-file Benjamin Banneker (1731–1806) was the first important black scientist in the United States. He taught himself calculus and trigonometry and created almanacs that made him famous, one of which he sent to Thomas Jefferson, who was at the time, secretary of state. Abolition societies presented his almanacs as evidence of the intellectual capabilities of blacks. Benjamin F. Butler (1818-93) Resource Type: image-file Lawyer and Union army general. Butler's sensational personal style often placed him in the foreground of various Union war efforts. As leader of the 8th Massachusetts Militia he pressured Maryland to reject secession, thereby helping to insure that the District of Columbia did not become isolated from the Union states. In addition, he characterized runaway slaves as "contraband of war" and refused to return them to the Confederacy. Benjamin Franklin on Purchasing Slaves Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Benjamin Franklin gave one reason why plantation owners relied upon slave labor. Benjamin Rush on the Confederation Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Benjamin Rush (c. 1745–1813) was an American physician and signer of the Declaration of Independence. He served as a member of the Continental Congress (1776–77) and for a time in the Continental army; he was also a member of the Pennsylvania convention that ratified the U.S. Constitution. Bethesda Fountain Resource Type: image/photo The Bethesda Fountain, showing Angel of the Waters by sculptor Emma Stebbins, was unveiled in Central Park in 1873. The angel holds a lily in one hand, the symbol of purity. The figures beneath her represent Peace, Health, Purity, and Temperance. Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique In her best-selling book The Feminine Mystique (1963), Betty Friedan (b. 1921) explained that many middle-class women found their roles as wives and mothers unfulfilling. The book helped to spark a new wave of feminism in the 1960s and 1970s. Beyond Vietnam Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document This speech was delivered by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. on April 4, 1967, at a meeting of Clergy and Laity Concerned at Riverside Church in New York City. Black Panther Party Platform Resource Type: text/proclamation Bobby Seale (1936– ) and Huey Newton (1942–89), cofounders of the Marxist Black Panther Party in Oakland, California, in 1966, advocated self-determination and self-rule for black Americans in contrast to the nonviolent, integrationist strategy of Martin Luther King Jr. (1929–68) and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. Black Power Many African Americans grew frustrated with the economic and social forms of discrimination they still encountered despite passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In the face of their increasing restiveness, many black leaders invoked the term black power. In 1968, Charles V. Hamilton, professor of political science at Columbia, explained that the term meant different things to different people. Black Soldiers: Service and Citizenship Resource Type: image-file Physician, abolitionist, and Union army major. Delaney, the son of free African Americans, was educated in Pittsburgh and studied medicine at Harvard. He was active in organizations that promoted the protection of fugitive slaves and the advancement of blacks. During the 1850s, he supported black emigration to Africa and led an expedition to the Niger Valley. During the Civil War, he recruited African American troops for the Union and was commissioned to be the first black field officer in the Union army. Black Women and the National Council of Women Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Adella Hunt Logan, a leading member of the Tuskegee Women's Club, argued on behalf of the National Association of Colored Women that black women should be included in the National Council of Women in the United States. Bleeding Kansas Resource Type: image/photo In the summer of 1856, advocates of Free States flocked to Kansas in anticipation of the popular sovereignty vote. Board of Indian Commissioner Report Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document In this 1905 “Board of Indian Commissioner Report,” the federal government outlines its Indian policy. Bobby Seale and Huey Newton Resource Type: image/photo Bobby Seale (1936– ) and Huey Newton (1942–89), cofounders of the Marxist Black Panther Party in Oakland, California, in 1966, advocated self-determination and self-rule for black Americans in contrast to the nonviolent, integrationist strategy of Martin Luther King Jr. (1929–68) and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. Brooklyn Bridge Resource Type: image/painting An important American modernist painter, John Marin (1870–1953) established his reputation with his work in watercolors. Although known for his landscape paintings, Marin expresses his interest in urban life in Brooklyn Bridge, which associates the excitement of New York with the famous bridge. The bridge connects Manhattan to Brooklyn and had been completed about thirty years earlier, in 1883. Brown v. Board of Education: Denial of Equal Protection Resource Type: text/court decision This is an excerpt of the 1954 Supreme Court decision rendered in Brown v. Board of Education, which declares separate facilities for blacks and whites as unequal. Brown v. Board of Education: The Results of Segregation Resource Type: text/court decision This landmark decision by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1954 declared the segregation of black and white children in American public schools to be unconstitutional. Buddhist Monks Protest Buddhist monks set themselves on fire to protest against the government of Ngo Dinh Diem (1901–63), president of South Vietnam, whose policies, they charged, favored Roman Catholics over Buddhists. It was an extreme measure that horrified the American public. Calhoun on the Compromise of 1850 Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document John C. Calhoun became the South's most powerful advocate as senator from South Carolina for most of the period from 1832 to 1850. Capitalism, Slavery, and Free Labor Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Apologists for slavery, like George Fitzhugh, often argued that the investment in slaves positively influenced the way slaveowners treated them. Carnegie on Wealth Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Andrew Carnegie made millions in the steel industry during the nineteeth century. While he was willing to share his wealth with those less fortunate than himself, he did set certain restrictions, as outlined in his 1889 article "Wealth." Central Park Resource Type: image-file To activist Jane Jacobs, the designed impenetrability of Central Park was problematic. Central Park Will Be a Beer-Garden Resource Type: text/newspaper This editorial appeared in the New-York Herald in 1858, speculating on the social implications of the proposed Central Park. Charles Dickens on the Five Points Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document The famed British writer Charles Dickens published his account of his 1842 visit to America, where he found evidence of England's superior class system in the squalor of New York's Five Points slum. Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Professionalizing Private Life Resource Type: image-file Charlotte Perkins Gilman at age 23. Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Professionalizing Private Life Resource Type: image-file Publicity flyer, c. 1905, advertising some of Gilman's most popular lecture topics. Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Professionalizing Private Life Resource Type: image-file Illustration from a Boston Sunday Herald article (January 1916) discussing Gilman's view of women's liberation as the measure of social progress. Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Professionalizing Private Life Resource Type: image-file Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Professionalizing Private Life Resource Type: image-file Chicano Liberation While some Mexican Americans sought to improve their standard of living by fighting for greater economic justice under the leadership of Cesar Chavez (1927–93) (founder of the United Farm Workers of America), Corky Gonzales and other Mexican Americans sought political self-determination for the Chicano people. Chocolate City Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document The militant black-power phase of the civil-rights movement had its musical corollary in the rise of funk, an urban, gritty genre most often associated in the late 1960s with James Brown (1928– ) and Sly and the Family Stone. The band Parliament burst onto the national scene in the mid-1970s. Cholera Epidemic Editorial Resource Type: text/newspaper As far away as New Hampshire, editorials denounced the New York cholera epidemic of 1832 as divine retribution for decadence and sin. Cholera Outbreak Resource Type: text/newspaper This article, written during the cholera epidemic of 1832, conveyed the opinion that only certain social types contracted the deadly disease. Churchill, FDR, and Stalin at Yalta Resource Type: image/photo This famous photograph, taken at the Yalta Conference in February 1945, captures the vivid personalities of the Allied war effort: Winston S. Churchill (1874–1965), Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882–1945), and Joseph Stalin (1879–1953). At Yalta, critics later said, Roosevelt capitulated to Stalin, paving the way for Soviet occupation of central and eastern Europe. Cities Deal with Water Resource Type: image-file New York from the air (c. 2001). Cities Deal with Water Resource Type: image-file Fairmount waterworks, Philadelphia (1874). Cities Deal with Water Resource Type: image-file The Oceanus logo, which the Bank of the Manhattan Company carried over from its origins as a water business. Civil Rights Act, 1964 Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson (1908–73) succeeded to the presidency after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy (1917–63) in November 1963. Drawing on his long experience as a U.S. senator, President Johnson spearheaded congressional passage of key pieces of civil-rights legislation in 1964 and 1965. The Civil Rights Act of 1964, excerpted below, provides for equal access to all public accommodations, thereby abolishing the federal government's tacit acceptance of or acquiescence to segregation between blacks and whites. Civil Rights Act of 1964 Resource Type: text/legislation A landmark piece of legislation, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited segregation in public places and declared discrimination, whether race- or sex-based, to be illegal in hiring practices and education. Coming of Age in Mississippi Moody reveals her experience of wandering into the white section of the local theater; she realizes, after the incident, that "whiteness" provided her friends with a different life. Common Sense Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Thomas Paine (1737–1809) was born in England and emigrated to the colonies in 1774. In Common Sense, Paine articulates his argument for independence. Commonwealth Club Speech Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Addressing this respected public affairs forum during his first campaign for the presidency, Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882–1945) articulated his vision of the federal government as guarantor of the nation's economic security. Conclusion Resource Type: image-file An Overseer Doing His Duty by Benjamin Henry Latrobe. In this antislavery watercolor, two female slaves labor under the surveillance of a relaxed overseer (1865). Conclusion Resource Type: image-file Conclusion Resource Type: image-file In the spring of 1861, Fort Sumter, located in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina, remained in Union hands despite South Carolina's succession. The Confederacy fired on the fort in April and inaugurated the Civil War. Conclusion Resource Type: image-file Demonstrators protest the Vietnam War outside a Democratic Party reception attended by President Kennedy (1963). Conclusion Resource Type: image-file Street in the Bronx, New York City (1990). Conclusion Resource Type: image-file President Eisenhower, with his wife Mamie, during inauguration ceremonies for his second term (January 1957). Conditions of Slaves vs. Free Laborers Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Historians consider George Fitzhugh (1806–81) as one of the most eloquent, influential, and popular spokespersons for slavery. Congressman Speaks on Troops' Morale In 1971, Paul McCloskey, congressman from California, spoke on the morale of U.S. troops in South Vietnam and offered a suggestion to President Nixon (1913–94). Containment Policy Tested Resource Type: image-file Containment Policy Tested: The Marshall Plan Resource Type: image-file Photo of Marshall (left) at Harvard commencement, June 5, 1947, with James Bryant Conant, president of Harvard, and General Omar Bradley. Convergence Resource Type: image/painting Renowned for his technique of spontaneous "splatter" or "action" painting, Jackson Pollock (1912–56) emerged as the leading American artist of the abstract expressionist movement. Correspondence between Peter Stuyvesant and the Directors of the Dutch West India Company, 1654-56 Resource Type: text/letter This exchange of letters between Peter Stuyvesant (c. 1592–1672) and the Dutch West India Company was prompted by the arrival of the first Jewish settlers in New Amsterdam in 1654. Most of them had narrowly escaped from Brazil, after the Portugese and Spanish arrived under the banner of the Inquisition. Country Joe McDonald, Protest Music The lyrics of many rock-and-roll and folk songs in the 1960s conveyed popular sentiment against the Vietnam War. Country Joe McDonald was a notable singer and writer of protest songs, including "I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-to-Die Rag" (1965), which became an anthem for the antiwar movement. Crime and Public Order Resource Type: image-file A uniformed police force was created in 1845. Crittenden's Proposed Amendment Resource Type: text/legislation Abraham Lincoln has been elected President and the threat of secession hangs over the Union. What is Crittenden's plan? Daily Tally of Cholera Victims Resource Type: image/chart Due to overcrowding and poor sanitation, the Five Points slum suffered numerous casualties during outbreaks of disease, as this daily report taken during the 1832 cholera epidemic makes clear. Disasters Resource Type: image-file Wreck of the steamboat General Slocum (June 15, 1904). Disasters Resource Type: image-file Frances Perkins (1882-1965), a leader in the factory-safety reform spawned by the Triangle Shirtwaist fire. Disasters Resource Type: image-file The charred facade of Happyland social club (1990). Disasters Resource Type: image-file World Trade Center explosion and fires, with the Brooklyn Bridge in the foreground (September 11, 2001). Disasters Resource Type: image-file Shrine to victims of the World Trade Center disaster, Union Square, New York City (2001). Dred Scott Decision Resource Type: text/court decision The following excerpt is from the majority decision in the case of Dred Scott v. Sandford. Written by Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, it addresses the question of African American citizenship and slavery in the territories. DuBois on American Democracy Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document DuBois discusses American democracy and why he is frustrated with party politics in the United States. DuMont Television Ad Resource Type: image/advertisement This television advertisement portrays a middle-class family. Eisenhower at a Football Game Resource Type: image/photo Eisenhower served as president of Columbia University; here he is seen waving a Columbia University pennant in one hand and an Army pennant in the other at a college football game. Environmental Critique Resource Type: image-file Rachel Carson, author and environmentalist, at her typewriter (1952). Environmental Critique: DDT Resource Type: image-file Farmer sprays DDT pesticide on trees (1948). Environmental Critique: DDT Resource Type: image-file Cover of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson (1962), which exposed data on the harmful effects of DDT and other chemical pesticides. Environmental Critique: Pollution and Health Resource Type: image-file Early ban-the-bomb protest outside the United Nations. Equality in the Armed Services Resource Type: text/legislation This path-breaking executive order, issued by President Truman (1884–1972) on July 26, 1948, officially ended segregation in the U.S. Armed Forces. Equiano: A Slave's Autobiography Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Olaudah Equiano was enslaved as a child after he and his sister were kidnapped in Africa. His autobiography offers a rare comparison of African and American cultures. Estimated Immigration, 1607–1819 Resource Type: image/chart Until the mid-1660s, white indentured servants met the labor needs of Virginia and Maryland plantations. Then, in the mid-1660s, the supply of white servants fell, and their price rose sharply. Eviction of Seneca Village Residents Resource Type: image/other This article reports on the reaction of Seneca Village residents to the evacuation order issued by city officials in the summer of 1856. Evolution and Labor Movements Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document In this 1893 magazine, an unknown writer comments on Charles Darwin's theory of evolution as it applied to the labor movement. Evolution and Religion Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Reverend Henry Ward Beecher, one of the most famous Congregational preachers of his day, involved himself in controversy when he accepted Charles Darwin's theories of evolution. Excerpt from An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith (1776). Resource Type: text-excerpt Excerpt from Olaudah Equiano, The Interresting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavas Vassa, the African. Resource Type: text-excerpt Exhibition of American Negroes at World's Fair Resource Type: image/photo The Exhibition of American Negroes at the 1900 Paris World's Fair tried to show that blacks in America had become part of the American middle class. Experiences of Female Slaves Resource Type: text/biography The following excerpt is from the narrative of a former slave who lived on a small farm in Tennessee. Ex-Slave Becomes a Preacher Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Members of the New Deal’s Federal Writers’ Project interviewed former slaves during 1936–38. The misspellings respect the speech and regional dialect of the ex-slaves. Anderson Edwards, born in Texas on March 12, 1844, recounts his experience as a preacher. Ex-Slave Discusses Religion Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Members of the New Deal’s Federal Writers’ Project interviewed former slaves during 1936–38. The misspellings respect the speech and regional dialect of the ex-slaves. Orleans Finger, born in Little Rock, Arkansas, c. 1858, described his faith in God. Family Worship on a Plantation Resource Type: image/illustration This picture illustrates a family worshiping on a plantation in South Carolina. Note the African American preacher and both black and white worshipers. FDR's Second Inaugural Address Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document President Roosevelt (1882–1945) began his second term in 1937, confident that his administration's interventionist policies would bring an end to the American depression. FDR on World War II Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document A former American ambassador to the Soviet Union and France, William Bullitt recalled in the tense days of the Cold War what he described as President Roosevelt's naïve assessment of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. Features of the Civil War: North and South Compared Resource Type: image-file Going to war: Private Edwin Francis Jemison, 2d Louisiana Regiment, C.S.A (c. 1861). He was killed in the battle of Malvern Hill (July 1862). Features of the Civil War: North and South Compared Resource Type: image-file Unidentified Union soldier (c. 1863). Features of the Civil War: North and South Compared Resource Type: image-file Private John J. Rhodes, Company K, 5th Virginia Regiment, C.S.A (c. 1863). Features of the Civil War: North and South Compared Resource Type: image-file Sergeant James W. Travis, 38th Illinois Volunteer Infantry (c. 1863). Feminism Resource Type: image-file Cover of a 1964 paperback edition of The Feminine Mystique by Betty Friedan. This book was first published in 1963. Feminism: Two Different Spheres Resource Type: image-file Alice Paul, feminist activist (1920). Feminism: Two Different Spheres Resource Type: image-file Eleanor Roosevelt shakes hands with a resident of a dormitory for black women war workers (1943). Feminism: Two Different Spheres Resource Type: image-file Women workers were a key force in the effort to win World War II. Feminism: Two Different Spheres Resource Type: image-file Woman works in her victory garden in Washington, D.C., during World War II. Feminism: Two Different Spheres Resource Type: image-file Women war worker with child, World War II. Feminism: Two Different Spheres Resource Type: image-file Cover of a 1961 edition of Baby and Child Care, by Dr. Benjamin Spock. This book was first published as The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care in 1946. Feminism: Two Different Spheres Resource Type: image-file Rebel Without A Cause, promotional still. Feminists Protest One of the targets of feminists in the 1960s was the Miss America Pageant, which some perceived as celebrating a stereotypical view of women. Members of New York Radical Women, a feminist group, protested outside the pageant in 1968. Final Analysis Resource Type: image-file Senator Joseph McCarthy during the McCarthy-Army hearings (1954), which led to his political downfall. Fire Resource Type: image-file The Great Fire of 1835. Fire Resource Type: image-file Volunteer firemen in mid-eighteenth century New York. Fire Resource Type: image-file Since 1873, New York has had fireboxes on its streets. First Continental Congress Declaration and Resolves Resource Type: text/proclamation Representatives of twelve of the thirteen original colonies met in Philadelphia in September and October of 1774 to develop a common response to the Coercive (Intolerable) Acts. Folk Song: Little Boxes Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document The folk-song movement in America grew after World War II, and in this song, Malvina Reynolds critiques the American way of life in the 1950s. After receiving her doctorate, she met Pete Seeger and became a folk singer and songwriter. Forcing Slavery Down the Throat of a Freesoiler Resource Type: image/cartoon In this political cartoon, a bearded "freesoiler" is restrained. Frederick Douglass (1817?/1818?–1895) Resource Type: image-file Born in Maryland to an enslaved African American woman with Native American ancestry, and fathered by an unknown white man, Douglass was sent back and forth several times from the plantation of his owner to Baltimore, where as a house slave he learned to read and write. As a young man Douglass conceived of several plans for escaping and, while working as a ship's caulker in Baltimore, finally made a successful bid for freedom, settling in New Bedford, Massachusetts. While attending an antislavery convention in Massachusetts in 1841, Douglass was asked to address the audience. This was the beginning of a long career as an antislavery orator and editor. Frederick Douglass and his Mother Resource Type: text/biography Frederick Douglass's autobiography is considered one of the classic slave narratives and was written for the abolitionist cause. Frederick Douglass Describes a Whipping Resource Type: text/biography Radical abolitionists sought to document their claims about the horrors of slavery. Frederick Douglass on Slavery Resource Type: text/biography Frederick Douglass was an escaped slave who gained fame as an orator and a writer promoting the cause of abolition. He wrote the following testimonial to the demoralizing effects of slavery in his autobiography. Freedom Petition of Massachusetts Slaves Resource Type: text/letter Four slaves submitted this letter to the provincial legislature in Massachusetts on April 20, 1773. Freedom Petition of New Hampshire Slaves Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document During the revolutionary era, many slaves petitioned colonial or state legislatures for their freedom and filed freedom suits, such as the one submitted by Nero Brewster, a slave, in Portsmouth on November 12, 1779. Free Speech Movement In 1964 at the Berkeley campus of the University of California, students, many of them active in the civil-rights movement, protested the university administration's rule forbidding them to distribute leaflets on the school's campus. Thus began what came to be known as the free-speech movement. From Protest to Politics Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Bayard Rustin (1910–87), one of Martin Luther King's closest advisors, was a key organizer of the 1963 March on Washington. Full Employment Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document The economist Alvin H. Hansen argued that the federal government, in the postwar era, needed to adopt policies to fuel consumer demand and thereby guarantee full employment in the civilian sector—an argument that led to Congressional passage of the Full Employment Act of 1945. General Benjamin Butler to General Winfield Scott Resource Type: text/letter Two Union generals discuss emancipation. George B. McClellan (1826-85) Resource Type: image-file Union general. At the battle of Antietam, McClellan fought Lee's Confederate army to a draw (1862). McClellan lost favor with President Lincoln and the Union press because of his apparent reluctance to fight and his inability to defeat Lee. Though he was a Unionist, McClellan was also a proslavery Democrat, which caused many Republicans to distrust him. George Washington (1732–99) Resource Type: image-file During the American Revolution, George Washington (1732–99) served as Commander of the Continental Army, and in 1789 he became the first president of the United States. When newly appointed as commander of the Continental Army, Phillis Wheatley wrote a poetic tribute to Washington, offering her good wishes for his success in the great revolutionary cause. Georgia Assembly Permits Slavery Resource Type: text/legislation In the 1730s, British officials hoped to create a haven in the Georgia colony for Britain’s poor. Liquor and slaves were prohibited in the colony until the Georgia colony changed its position by 1750. Give Me Liberty, or Give Me Death Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document At the second Virginia Convention, on March 23, 1775, Patrick Henry (1736–99) delivered this speech in which he argued that war with Great Britain was inevitable. Go Down Moses Resource Type: text/song lyrics Many spirituals compared African American slaves to the ancient Hebrew slaves depicted in the Bible, who eventually gained their freedom. Goldwater's Opening Campaign Speech Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document At the 1964 Republican Convention, the party nominated Barry Goldwater (1909–98) for the presidency. A U.S. senator from Arizona, Goldwater campaigned as a staunch advocate for the Cold War and against the liberal Democratic Party, foreshadowing the ideological dispositions of subsequent Republican presidencies, most notably, Richard M. Nixon (1913–94), Ronald Reagan (1911– ), and George W. Bush (1946– ). Greensboro Resource Type: image-file Sit-in at a Woolworth store's lunch counter, Greensboro, North Carolina (February 1960). Growth of Woman's Christian Temperance Union Resource Type: image/chart This 1959 chart shows the growth in membership of women involved in the movement to prohibit the consumption of alcohol. Harriet Tubman's Letter to Lincoln Resource Type: text/letter After escaping from slavery in 1849, Harriet Tubman became one of the most prominent abolitionists and a driving force behind the various secret escape routes for slaves. In this quotation from a letter by another great abolitionist, Lydia Maria Child, Tubman seeks to influence President Abraham Lincoln. Hippies Increasing numbers of young people in the 1960s dropped out of mainstream society and sought alternative lifestyles. Many of these hippies, as they were called, congregated in the Haight-Ashbury district of San Francisco. A local newspaper offers tongue-in-cheek advice for tourists seeking a glimpse of the counterculture. Ho Chi Minh, Letter to President Johnson The correspondence between two heads of state, Ho Chi Minh (1890–1969) and Lyndon B. Johnson (1908–73), convey their perspectives on the war in Vietnam. This excerpt is from Ho's response to Johnson. Homogenized Children of New Suburbia Resource Type: text/newspaper The new American suburbs are described in this 1954 newspaper article. How the Other Half Lives Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Newspaper reporters, such as Jacob Riis (1849–1914), played an instrumental role in exposing the destitution and misery of New York's immigrant and working-class neighborhoods. I Am Waiting Resource Type: text/fiction One of the beat poets, Ferlinghetti captures an alternative perspective on life in postwar America in this poem. Illustrations of the Pro-Slavery Argument Resource Type: image/cartoon These illustrations support the institution of slavery. Why? Impact of the Cold War: The Iron Triangle Resource Type: image-file Liberals were concerned that domestic social problems would damage America's influence abroad. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document By 1858, the former slave Harriet Jacobs had finished her autobiography, which was later edited by the famous abolitionist, Lydia Maria Child. Indochina, 1964 to 1975 Resource Type: image/map This map shows U.S. military bases in Indochina, and the major troop and supply lines of South and of North Vietnam. Interpretations of the Red Scare Resource Type: image-file U.S. Army poster from the mid-1950s. Interpretations of the Red Scare: Alienated Travelers Resource Type: image-file U.S. Army poster from the mid-1950s. Interpretations of the Red Scare: Alienated Travelers Resource Type: image-file McCarthy supporters at a rally in Washington, D.C., in December 1954. Interpretations of the Red Scare: Domestic Subversion Resource Type: image-file Poster for I Was a Communist for the FBI, a fictional film about an FBI agent who infiltrates the Communist Party (1951). Interpretations of the Red Scare: Institutional Stakes Resource Type: image-file The House Un-American Activities Committee. Interpretations of the Red Scare: Institutional Stakes Resource Type: image-file Edgar Hoover, longtime director of the FBI and a passionate anticommunist (c. 1953). Interpretations of the Red Scare: Party Competition Resource Type: image-file Harry Truman holding up an early edition of the Chicago Tribune. The banner headline erroneously credited his opponent, Thomas Dewey, with victory in the 1948 presidential election. Interpretations of the Red Scare: Party Competition Resource Type: image-file Interpretations of the Red Scare: Party Competition Resource Type: image-file Senator Joseph McCarthy's cause was received favorably by a number of Democrats, including Robert F. Kennedy (center) and Senator Henry Jackson of Washington (right). Interpretations of the Red Scare: Party Competition Resource Type: image-file Telegram exchange between Joseph McCarthy and Harry Truman, part 1. Interpretations of the Red Scare: Party Competition Resource Type: image-file Telegram exchange between Joseph McCarthy and Harry Truman, part 2. Interpretations of the Red Scare: Party Competition Resource Type: image-file Telegram exchange between Joseph McCarthy and Harry Truman, part 3. Interpretations of the Red Scare: Party Competition Resource Type: image-file Telegram exchange between Joseph McCarthy and Harry Truman, part 4. Interpretations of the Red Scare: Party Competition Resource Type: image-file Telegram exchange between Joseph McCarthy and Harry Truman, part 5. Interpretations of the Red Scare: Party Competition Resource Type: image-file Telegram exchange between Joseph McCarthy and Harry Truman, part 6. Interpretations of the Red Scare: Party Competition Resource Type: image-file Telegram exchange between Joseph McCarthy and Harry Truman, part 7. Truman's reply was probably never sent. Interpretations of the Red Scare: Why So Widespread? Resource Type: image-file McCarthy depicted as a threat to the press. Cartoon by Daniel Robert Fitzpatrick (1953). Interview with General George C. Marshall. 30 October 1952 Resource Type: text-excerpt Introduction Resource Type: image-file President John F. Kennedy, shortly after taking office, meets with former President Dwight Eisenhower (April 1961). Introduction Resource Type: image-file The March on Washington (August 28, 1963). Participants included, front row, left to right: Whitney M. Young Jr., executive director of the National Urban League; Roy Wilkins, executive secretary of the NAACP; and A. Philip Randolph, president of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters. Irish Road Construction Crew Resource Type: image/illustration Irish laborers made up a large proportion of the work force in antebellum New York City, constructing all manner of public works and buildings, including Central Park. Jane Addams: Domesticating the Public World Resource Type: image-file Jane Addams: Domesticating the Public World Resource Type: image-file Jane Addams: Domesticating the Public World Resource Type: image-file Jane Addams: Domesticating the Public World Resource Type: image-file Jane Addams as a young woman. Jefferson Davis (1808-89) Resource Type: image-file Southern politician and president of the Confederacy (1861–65). Davis graduated from West Point in 1828 and served briefly in Congress, which he left to fight in the Mexican War. After returning, he was appointed U.S. senator from Mississippi to fill a vacated seat. In 1853 he was appointed secretary of war by President Franklin Pierce. Davis initially opposed the secession of Southern states but accepted the post of major general of Mississippi's armed forces when that state seceded in 1861. Only weeks later, the Confederate Convention named him president. His presidency was marked by dissension among different factions within the Confederacy. After General Robert E. Lee surrendered to the North without Davis's approval, Davis fled from the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia, and was captured in Georgia. He was held prisoner for two years and was released on bail in 1867. For the rest of his life he spoke out in defense of the defeated South. Jefferson on Emancipation Resource Type: text/letter Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), in this letter to Edward Coles (1786–1868), maintained that emancipation was a task for the younger generation. Jefferson on Slavery Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Jefferson questioned the effects of slavery and slaveholding, and foretold its end. Johann Bolzius on Slave Labor Resource Type: text/letter Rice had probably come from West Africa, and some African slaves were familiar with rice cultivation. In this letter, Johann Martin Bolzius described rice cultivation's highly skilled but backbreaking labor. John C. Calhoun (1782–1850) Resource Type: image-file Lawyer, senator, and vice president under two different administrations (John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson), John C. Calhoun of South Carolina was both an ardent supporter of states' rights in the extreme and a developer of well-constructed proslavery arguments. For Calhoun, the difference between masterful whites and enslaved Africans in the slaveholding states demonstrated that slavery was not an evil but a "positive good." The "positive good" argument helped to bolster the idea that it was the free white factory worker whose life was ultimately more debased than that of any enslaved person—an argument that assumed that all masters were "good" and that disregarded the basic desire of all people for liberty. John F. Kennedy Resource Type: image-file President and Mrs. Kennedy entertain guests at the White House. Left to right: Frederic March, actor; Mary Walsh (Mrs. Ernest) Hemingway; President and Mrs. Kennedy; and Katherine (Mrs. George C.) Marshall. The first couple hosted many leading cultural figures. John F. Kennedy: A New Generation Resource Type: text-excerpt President Kennedy's Inaugural Address (1961). John F. Kennedy: Charm and Grace Resource Type: image-file Pablo Casals, cellist, performs for the Kennedys at the White House (1961). John J. Crittenden (1786-1863) Resource Type: image-file U.S. senator, U.S. attorney general, and governor of Kentucky. Crittenden was known for his calming and conciliatory demeanor; as senator he attempted to forge a compromise to avert the Civil War. His "Crittenden Compromise," proposed in December 1860, would have prohibited slavery north of the 36 30' line but allowed it to continue south of that, and would have prevented Congress from abolishing slavery in the District of Columbia and from regulating the interstate transportation of slaves. The compromise was rejected in the House and Senate. In July 1861, Crittenden proposed another resolution, which declared that the war would not interfere with the institution of slavery, and this was approved by both houses of Congress. John S. Rock (1825-66) Resource Type: image-file Lawyer, abolitionist, and physician. Born of free African Americans in New Jersey, Rock earned a medical degree from a medical college in Philadelphia (1852), then went on to study law and was admitted to the Massachusetts bar (1861). Rock helped to assemble the Massachusetts 54th Regiment and sought equal pay for African American soldiers. In 1865 he became the first African American lawyer to be admitted to practice before the U.S. Supreme Court. Joint Chiefs of Staff on Vietnam On behalf of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Maxwell Taylor, the chairman, wrote this memorandum to Robert S. McNamara (b. 1916), secretary of defense, in 1964. Joseph McCarthy's Speech Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Senator Joseph R. McCarthy (1908–57), an unremarkable member of Congress from Wisconsin, burst onto the national political scene in 1950 after announcing to a West Virginia audience that he held in his hand a list of 205 American Communists who worked in the U.S. State Department. Joseph McCarthy's Speech Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Senator Joseph R. McCarthy, an unremarkable member of Congress from Wisconsin, burst onto the national political scene in 1950, after announcing to a West Virginia audience that he held in his hand a list of 205 American Communists who worked in the U.S. State Department. Kent State Shootings Shortly after President Nixon (1913–94) announced his decision to send U.S. troops into Cambodia, students at college campuses across the United States protested. On May 4, 1970, members of the Ohio National Guard fired on student protesters at Kent State University, and four undergraduates were killed. Kerner Commission President Johnson (1908–73) appointed Otto Kerner, former governor of Illinois, to head a commission to investigate the causes of urban riots in the mid to late 1960s. Key Figures Resource Type: image-file Key Figures Resource Type: image-file Key Figures Resource Type: image-file Key Figures Resource Type: image-file Key Figures Resource Type: image-file Key Figures Resource Type: image-file Key Figures Resource Type: image-file Key Figures Resource Type: image-file Key Figures Resource Type: image-file Key Figures Resource Type: image-file Key Figures Resource Type: image-file Key Figures Resource Type: image-file Key Figures Resource Type: image-file Key Figures Resource Type: image-file Key Figures Resource Type: image-file Key Figures Resource Type: image-file Franklin D. Roosevelt Key Figures Resource Type: image-file Kindred Spirits Resource Type: image/painting In Kindred Spirits, Asher B. Durand (1796–1886), a member of the Hudson River School of painting, depicts his two close friends, the painter Thomas Cole and publisher William Cullen Bryant, on a ledge in the Catskills of New York. Kodak Camera Ad Resource Type: image/advertisement This advertisement for Kodak cameras appeared in a 1900 issue of the magazine Youth's Companion. Laws and Statutes: Undefined Legal Status Resource Type: image-file This detail from an eighteenth-century handkerchief shows the careers of the good and bad servants, William Goodchild and Jack Idle. Transportation in this context meant being sent to the British colonies, usually as punishment for crimes committed. Legacies: The American Welfare State Resource Type: image-file Classic poster of the Works Progress Administration, or WPA, one of the many New Deal projects of FDR's administration. Letter from a Fugitive Slave Resource Type: text/letter In this letter, escaped slave Anthony Chase explains to his former master Jeremiah Hoffman why he has run away. Letter from a Slaveowner Resource Type: text/letter In this letter, Henry Tayloe, a slaveowner, reveals to his brother the interest of Southern slaveholders in the institution of slavery. Letter of a Woman Homesteader Resource Type: text/letter Elinore Pruitt Stewart was one of many female homesteaders. In 1914, her letters were published in Letters of a Woman Homesteader. One letter, dated October 14, 1911, is reproduced below. Levitt On Communism and Home Ownership Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document As the first community of its kind, Levittown, New York, located 25 miles east of Manhattan on Long Island, heralded the postwar arrival of suburban America with its mass-produced housing. William Levitt is quoted as saying the following. Levittown, New York Resource Type: image/photo As the first community of its kind, Levittown, New York, located 25 miles east of Manhattan on Long Island, heralded the postwar arrival of suburban America with its hundreds of acres of mass-produced housing. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation Resource Type: text/proclamation Read the Emancipation Proclamation to determine whom exactly it set free. Was the Proclamation issued because the war was not going well for the North or because African Americans were demanding that the destruction of slavery become the key aim of the war? Lincoln's Letter to Horace Greeley Resource Type: text/letter President Abraham Lincoln responds on August 22, 1862, to the publisher Horace Greeley, who three days earlier criticized the government for not making emancipation a key war aim. What Greeley did not know and what Lincoln in his letter does not divulge is that a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation was on Lincoln's desk as he wrote this letter to Greeley. Lincoln on Striking Shoemakers Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document During the presidential campaign in 1860, Abraham Lincoln traveled to New England and gave the following speech related to the famous strike of shoemakers in Lynn, Massachusetts. The newspaper that reprinted the speech indicated the audience's reaction in the bracketed information, provided in the excerpt below. Location of Central Park Resource Type: text/newspaper This editorial in the forerunner to the New York Times presented its critique of the first proposed location for Central Park on the east side of Manhattan. Lord Dunmore's Call to Slaves Resource Type: text/proclamation In November 1775, Lord Dunmore called on slaves to desert their masters and join the British army. Lorenzo Thomas (1804-75) Resource Type: image-file Union general. Shortly after the Emancipation Proclamation (1863), Thomas was ordered to the Mississippi Valley to lead the Union's first concerted effort to recruit African Americans into the army. Under his direction, the Bureau of Colored Troops was established, and his actions helped to erode the resistance of white soldiers to incorporating fugitive slaves into military service. By the end of the war, Thomas had recruited more than 75,000 African American soldiers. Lyndon B. Johnson Resource Type: image-file John F. Kennedy as a young man, Palm Beach, Florida. Lyndon B. Johnson Resource Type: image-file Lyndon Johnson as a child, with his sister Josefa Johnson. Lyndon B. Johnson: Kennedy and Johnson's Legacy Resource Type: image-file President Johnson, in a characteristic pose, with his Supreme Court nominee, Abe Fortas (1965). Manumission of Slaves in Maryland Resource Type: text/legislation In the wake of the Revolution, many Southern states liberalized their provisions for manumission. This period of liberalized manumission came to an end between 1810 and 1820. Manumission of Slaves in North Carolina Resource Type: text/legislation In the wake of the Revolution, many Southern states liberalized their provisions for manumission. By 1790, slaveholders could manumit their slaves throughout the South, except in North Carolina. Margaret Sanger on Working Women Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Margaret Sanger became nationally famous for organizing a birth-control movement. In this 1915 issue of the International Socialist Review, Sanger discusses working women. Marriage Rates of Alumnae Resource Type: image/chart This table shows the marriage rates of women who graduated from a variety of American colleges during the period of 1820–1930. Martin F. Becker (c.1820s-1880) Resource Type: image-file Abolitionist and Union army officer. Becker was born in Dutch Guyana of an African father and an East Indian mother, and assumed various occupations during his lifetime. In the 1850s, he was an active abolitionist. During the Civil War, he joined the Union navy and then served in the army. He was a member of the 55th Massachusetts Regiment and moved through the ranks from private to quartermaster sergeant to second lieutenant, a position he would have assumed had he not been demobilized. After the war, he was appointed trial justice in South Carolina. Martin Luther King Jr. Addresses March on Washington A pivotal moment in the civil-rights movement was the March on Washington in 1963. There the Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. (1929–68) expressed the hopes of millions in his stirring "I Have a Dream" speech. Master Going to Sell Us Tomorrow Resource Type: text/song lyrics Spirituals were sung by slaves, mostly outside of churches. They reflected the values and experiences of African Americans. Masters and Slaves Resource Type: text/biography Members of the New Deal’s Federal Writers’ Project interviewed former slaves during 1936–38. The misspellings respect the speech and regional dialect of the ex-slaves. Mother Ann Clark, born June 1, 1825, was a slave in Louisiana. She describes the ruthlessness of her master. Meanings of Freedom: Political Freedom Resource Type: image-file View of the West Front of Monticello. No slaves are represented in the idyllic scene painted for Jefferson's granddaughter (c. 1827) Meanings of Freedom: Slavery Denounced Resource Type: image-file Meanings of Freedom: Slavery Denounced Resource Type: image-file The Selling of Joseph by Samuel Sewall is the first antislavery tract published in America (1700). Mechanized Home Laundry Resource Type: image/illustration This drawing dramatically illustrates the increasing mechanization of domestic life during the second decade of the twentieth century. Memoirs of Captain Alexander Graydon Resource Type: text/biography Alexander Graydon (1752–1818), a captain in the Continental army, recounted the problems he encountered as he recruited men to fight the war, and he commented on the meaning of the Revolution. Memorandum to President Truman Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Clark Clifford, special counsel to President Truman (1884–1972) defends in this memorandum his support for an American policy of containment toward the Soviet Union. Michigan Anti-communist Law Resource Type: text/legislation The state of Michigan passed this legislation in 1952. Militancy Resource Type: flash5 Broadside distributed at Columbia University by the Black Panther Party (1970). Militancy: Black Power Resource Type: image-file Stokely Carmichael addresses a crowd (1966). Militancy: Black Power Resource Type: image-file Malcolm X visits Barnard College (1965). Militancy: The Black Panthers Resource Type: image-file Black Panther Party members at the California state capitol argue with a state policeman after he disarms them, Sacramento (May 2, 1967). Miranda Decision In Miranda v. Arizona (1966), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that law-enforcement officials are required to inform the accused of their legal rights. Miranda v. Arizona Resource Type: text/court decision In Miranda v. Arizona, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 5–4 on June 13, 1966, that all individuals taken into police custody must be informed of their constitutional rights, and that information obtained otherwise is inadmissible in a court of law. Mississippi's Declaration of Secession Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document The first state to secede was South Carolina, doing so on December 20, 1860. Before the end of February, all the states of the Deep South (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas) had seceded. Montgomery, Alabama, Code on Segregation Resource Type: text/legislation This piece of municipal legislation mandates the separation of races on city bus lines. Mrs. Marion Crocker on the Conservation Imperative Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Mrs. Marion Crocker of the General Federation of Women's Clubs wholeheartedly endorsed the conservation movement, and the scientific basis on which it stood, in this 1912 speech to the Fourth Annual Conservation Congress. Muhammad Ali, Conscientious Objector During the Vietnam War, boxing champion Muhammad Ali (b. 1942) was a conscientious objector. Years later, Ali discussed with his biographer his reasons for refusing induction into the U.S. armed forces in 1967. NAACP Address Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document In his speech to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, President Harry Truman (1884–1972) pledged his commitment to end racial discrimination through passage of more far-reaching civil-rights laws. Nathaniel Bacon's Declaration of the People Resource Type: text/proclamation In his "Declaration of the People," Nathaniel Bacon listed Governor Berkeley's crimes against the people. Nathaniel Bacon's Manifesto Resource Type: text/proclamation Nathaniel Bacon issued this manifesto in response to Governor Berkeley's declaration that Bacon and his followers had committed treason. National Democratic Party Platform of 1860 Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document In 1860, the Democratic Party split along sectional lines, leaving the Southern Democrats as the dominant party of the South. In the 1860 presidential election, the Southern Democrats won every state of the Deep South, the first states to secede. National Organization for Women The National Organization for Women (NOW) was founded in 1966 and soon became the most prominent organization promoting the causes of the women's movement. National Politics: Ike's Popularity Resource Type: image-file Dwight Eisenhower campaigns for president (1952). National Politics: Looking to Business Resource Type: image-file President-elect Eisenhower and Vice President-elect Nixon, with cabinet nominees (January 1953). National Politics: Looking to Business Resource Type: image-file President-elect Eisenhower, Viscount Bernard L. Montgomery, and Don G. Mitchell, president of Sylvania corporation (1958). Nixon's Acceptance of Nomination for President Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document At the 1968 Republican National Convention, Richard M. Nixon (1913–94) accepted his party's nomination for the presidency on behalf of "the silent majority" of citizens who were not demonstrating against the federal government or against the American way of life. Nixon's Acceptance Speech In his acceptance speech at the Republican National Convention in Miami in 1968, Richard M. Nixon (1913–94) announced his plans for "an honorable end" to the war in Vietnam. Novum Belgium Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Father Isaac Jogues, a French Jesuit missionary, recalls the great religious and cultural diversity he found in New Amsterdam during his visit there in 1643. Of the Nature of the Land and Manners of the Folk on the Great River of Mountains Johan de Laet, a director of the Dutch West India Company, collected the seventeenth-century observations of European visitors to the New World. De Laet claimed that Henry Hudson (c. 1575–1611), the great English explorer, wrote the following about his encounter in 1609 with the indigenous inhabitants of what would become Manhattan Island. De Laet concludes from Hudson's report that these people were peculiar but not a serious threat to Europeans. Other Americans Resource Type: image-file A corporate board of directors (1961). Other Americans: Pressured to Conform Resource Type: image-file Cover of The Organization Man by William H. Whyte, Jr. (1956). Other Americans: The Beats Resource Type: image-file Allen Ginsberg, in a photograph taken at his enrollment in Columbia University (1943). Other Americans: The Beats Resource Type: image-file While a student at Columbia University, Allen Ginsberg took courses with Lionel Trilling, the great literary scholar. Other Americans: The Beats Resource Type: image-file Peter Orlovsky and Gregory Corso, fellow Beats, listen to Allen Ginsberg read poetry at Columbia University (1959). Other Americans: The Beats Resource Type: image-file Cover from a 1959 edition of Howl and Other Poems by Allen Ginsberg. This collection was first published by City Lights Books in 1956. Other Americans: The Beats Resource Type: image-file Allen Ginsberg at home (1966). Otis on the Rights of the British Colonies Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document James Otis (1725–83) was a political activist during the period leading up to the American Revolution. In pamphlets, he articulated grievances against the British government. Out in the Automobile Resource Type: text/song lyrics The comedian Arthur Collins and the tenor Byron Harlan wrote lyrics for many humorous songs. "Out in the Automobile" pokes fun at early-twentieth-century cars. Paris Peace Accords Negotiators representing North Vietnam, South Vietnam, and the United States signed the Paris Peace Accords in January 1973, in hopes of ending U.S. military involvement in South Vietnam. One of the provisions for the reunification of Vietnam is excerpted below. Parks Resource Type: image-file Arlington National Cemetery. Peace Without Conquest The Gulf of Tonkin incident fueled the growing debate among Americans about the nation's involvement in the Vietnam War. In this speech, President Johnson (1908–73) explained his position. Peter Schaghen, Letter to the Directors of the Dutch West India Company, 1626 Resource Type: text/letter Written in 1626, this letter from Peter Schaghen, the liaison between the Dutch government and the Dutch West India Company (which helped develop trade in the New World), makes the earliest known reference to the company's purchase of Manhattan Island from the Lenape Indians for 60 guilders. Petition for Reservoir Rights Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document San Francisco petitioned Congress for use of the Hetch Hetchy area of Yosemite National Park for reservoir rights. The petition was presented at the congressional hearing before the Committee on the Public Lands of the House of Representatives. Petition of 547 Loyalists Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document In November 1776, following the occupation of New York by the British, more than 500 residents drew up the following petition, pledging their loyalty to the Crown, and asking that General Howe suspend martial law. Petition to Have the Five Points Opened Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Merchants owning property along the periphery of Five Points petitioned the municipal government in 1829 to demolish the heart of the slum by widening and extending Anthony and Cross Streets. Phillis Wheatley (c. 1753–84) Resource Type: image-file Phillis Wheatley (c. 1753–84), born in Africa, was the first black woman whose poetry was published in the Western Hemisphere. In Europe and the United States in the 1780s, she developed a reputation as a literary figure. A devout Christian, she wove religious themes into many of her poems, including her eulogy for Samuel Sewall, author of The Selling of Joseph. Physicist's Testimony to Congress Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document This excerpt is from an exchange between Dr. Morrison, a professor of physics at Cornell University, and Mr. Morris, a member of the U.S. Senate Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act. An article that Dr. Morrison had published in the Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, February 1949, was the subject of this exchange. Plan for the Improvement of The Central Park, Adopted by the Commissioners, June 3rd, 1856; Published 1858 Resource Type: image/map This proposal, known as the Greensward Plan, designed by Frederick Law Olmstead (1822–95) and Calvert Vaux (1824–95), was the winning entry for the design of Central Park. Plantation Values: The Defense of Slavery Resource Type: image-file Slavery as It Exists in America. Slavery as It Exists in England. Lithograph (1850). One Northerner asks, "Is this the way slaves are treated in the South?" and the other adds, "Is it possible that we of the North have been so deceived by false Reports? Why did we not visit the South before we caused this trouble between the North and South, and so much hard feelings amongst our friends at home?" One Southerner replies, "It is as a general thing, some few exceptions, after mine have done a certain amount of Labor which they finish by 4 or 5 P.M. I allow them to enjoy themselves in any reasonable way." The second Southerner says, "I think our Visitors will tell a different Story when they return to the North, the thoughts of this Union being dissolved is to [sic] dreadful a thing to be contemplated, but we must stand up for our rights let the consequence be as it may." Plantation Values: The Defense of Slavery Resource Type: image-file Slavery as It Exists in America. Slavery as It Exists in England. Lithograph (1850). At left a gentleman asks a ragged figure, "Why my Dear Friend, how is it that you look so old? You know we were playmates when boys." The ragged man replies, "Ah! Farmer we operatives are ' fast men,' and generally die of old age at Forty." Behind them an emaciated mother exclaims, "Oh Dear! what wretched Slaves, this Factory Life makes me & my children." To their right a barefoot boy tells his compation, "I say Bill, I am going to run away from the Factory, and go to the Coal Mines where they have to work only 14 hours a Day instead of 17 as you do here." The other boy replies, "Oh! how I would like to have such a comfortable place." In the corner a forlorn man says, "Thank God my Factory Slavery will soon be over." At bottom is a portrait of "Thompson the English Anti-Slavery Agitator" and the quote "I am proud to boast that Slavery does not breathe in England." Plantation Values: The Paternalist Vision Resource Type: image-file America. Lithograph by Edward Williams Clay (1841). A highly idealized portrayal of the relationship between a slaveowning family and its slaves. The old slave in the foreground says, "God Bless you massa! you feed and clothe us. When we are sick you nurse us, and when too old to work, you provide for us!" The paternalist master vows, "These poor creatures are a sacred legacy from my ancestors and while a dollar is left me, nothing shall be spared to increase their comfort and happiness." Poverty Resource Type: image-file Cover of a 1963 paperback edition of The Other America: Poverty in the United States by Michael Harrington. This book was first published in 1962. Poverty Resource Type: image-file Michael Harrington, author. Poverty: Structural Poverty Resource Type: image-file Boy amid demolished slums, New York City (1961). Poverty: Structural Poverty Resource Type: image-file Man looks out over slums in Detroit. Poverty: Structural Poverty Resource Type: image-file Slums, Omaha, Nebraska. Poverty: Structural Poverty Resource Type: image-file Slums in Appalachia. Poverty: Structural Poverty Resource Type: image-file Girl in a slum area of Washington, D.C. Poverty: Why the Attention? Resource Type: image-file Teenage mother attends class with her baby (1971). Power and Racism Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Stokely Carmichael (1941–88), born in Trinidad, invented the rallying cry of "Black Power" in Mississippi, in 1966, as a leader of the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). He left America in 1969 for Africa, where he helped found the All-African People's Revolutionary Party. President Johnson's Commencement Address Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document President Lyndon Baines Johnson (1908–73) made this landmark speech in 1965 to students at Howard University in Washington, D.C., a historically black institution, to delineate the tenets of his Great Society program. President Nixon, speech on "Vietnamization," November 1969 While peace negotiations were underway in Paris, President Nixon (1913–94), in a televised talk to the American public, outlined his policy for "Vietnamization" of the war. President Nixon Defends Invasion of Cambodia In April 1970, President Nixon (1913–94), in a televised speech to the American public, defended his decision to send U.S. troops into Cambodia. That action would widen the war. President Nixon Meets with Construction Unions Construction helmets adorn a table in the White House after a meeting on May 26, 1970, between President Nixon (1913–94) and leaders of labor unions representing construction workers, who were dubbed "hard hats" and widely perceived as supportive of the U.S. war effort in Vietnam. Presidents and Liberalism Resource Type: image-file Cover of the first edition of The American Presidency by Clinton Rossiter (1956). Presidents and Liberalism Resource Type: image-file Cover of the first edition of Presidential Power: The Politics of Leadership by Richard Neustadt (1960.) Presidents and Liberalism Resource Type: image-file Dwight Eisenhower, former U.S. president and former Columbia University president, visits Columbia's campus (1964). President Truman's State of the Union Address Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document After his reelection to the White House in 1948, President Truman (1884–1972) revived his liberal domestic legislative agenda, or the "Fair Deal," that Republicans had defeated in the previous Congress. President Truman Speaking to the NAACP, 1947 Resource Type: image/photo At the Lincoln Memorial, President Harry Truman (1884–1972) became the first U.S. president to address the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Principles of American Reform Judaism Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document In 1885, American Reform rabbis met in Pittsburgh to outline the basic principles of American Reform Judaism. Prosser's Rebellion Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Ben, alias Ben Woolfolk, was an accomplice of Gabriel Prosser, an American slave who planned a major slave uprising in the United States on August 30, 1800. The following is an excerpt from Ben's confession, which led to his pardon. Protestors at 1968 Democratic National Convention Resource Type: photograph Antiwar demonstrators descended on the Democratic National Convention in Chicago in 1968. Mayor Richard Daley (1902–76) directed the police to take strong measures to control the crowd, and major confrontations between the police and the protesters ensued. Public Health Resource Type: image-file Densely inhabited slums in New York City facilitated the spread of cholera. Public Health Resource Type: image-file The expansion of world trade promoted the spread of cholera. Public Health Resource Type: image-file Official recommendations for cholera prevention in New York City. Railroad Ad Resource Type: image/illustration This Northern Pacific Railroad advertisement appeared in a 1900 issue of Harper's Weekly. The advertisement promotes travel to Yellowstone National Park. Ran Away Resource Type: image/advertisement This broadside promised a reward for the return of a fugitive slave. Reagan's First Inaugural Address Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document In his first inaugural address, in 1981, President Ronald Reagan (1911– ) pledged to reduce the size and role of the federal government on behalf of "we the people," launching a new era of partisan acrimony that has not yet subsided. Reclamation Act / Newlands Act of 1902 Resource Type: text/legislation The Reclamation Act / Newlands Act of 1902 allowed the government to undertake irrigation projects to establish farms for relief of urban congestion. The bill was named for its author, Francis Griffith Newlands, Democratic Representative from Nevada. The Reclamation Service, created in July 1902, was established a month later and eventually became the Bureau of Reclamation. Recommendations of Additional Deployments to Vietnam In this memorandum to President Johnson (1908–73), Robert S. McNamara (b. 1916), secretary of defense, recommends a course of action he believes will achieve "the best odds [and] the best outcome." Record of Bacon's Rebellion Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Bacon's Rebellion (1676) highlighted the problems of indentured servitude and resulted in the shift to slave labor. Recruiting Poster Resource Type: image/other President Abraham Lincoln did not endorse the active recruitment of free African Americans into the Union army until 1863. Religious Instruction for Slaves Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Peter Randolph was a former slave and a minister at the Old African Baptist Church in Richmond, Virginia. In the following excerpt, he describes religious instruction for slaves. Remington Typewriter Company Ad Resource Type: image/advertisement In a 1905 advertisement, the Remington Typewriter Company used two letters by Mark Twain to illustrate how his attitude toward the typewriter had changed over a period of thirty years. Report of the Magdalen Society Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Led by John Robert McDowell, a Princeton divinity student, the Magdalen Society was founded in 1831 to help reform prostitutes living in the Five Points slum. Republican Party Platform of 1856 Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document While the Democrats endorsed popular sovereignty to decide the issue of slavery in the Territories, the Republicans took the stand put forth here. Resistance to Slavery: Running Away Resource Type: image-file A family of fugitive slaves is beset by dogs and patrollers. Illustration from The Suppressed book about Slavery! (1864). Resistance to Slavery: Running Away Resource Type: image-file A typical broadside advertisement for a runaway slave, "Negro Boy Robert Porter, aged 19." Resolutions of the Stamp Act Congress (1765) Resource Type: text/legislation After the conclusion of the Seven Years War (1756–63) between England and France, the British Parliament approved the Stamp Act, a measure to raise revenue to pay for British troops in the American colonies. The following are excerpts from the proceedings of the Stamp Act Congress on October 19, 1765. Responses of Protestant Leaders Resource Type: image-file The theologian Charles Hodge (1791-1878), who was affiliated with Princeton Theological Seminary for 58 years. Responses of Protestant Leaders Resource Type: image-file The prominent preacher and lecturer Henry Ward Beecher (1813-87), whose published works included Evolution and Religion (1885). Response to Invasion of Cambodia Shortly after President Nixon's (1913–94) announcement that he would send U.S. troops into Cambodia as the scope of the Vietnam War had widened, the St. Louis Post-Dispatch published an editorial in which it criticized his decision. Response to Paris Peace Accords After the signing of the Paris Peace Accords, the Toronto Star published an editorial in which it argued that President Nixon (1913–94) was disingenuous in announcing that the United States had achieved "peace with honor." Response to the Crittenden Amendment Resource Type: text/newspaper This editorial responds to Crittenden's proposal to amend the Constitution. Review of Invisible Man Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document New York intellectual Irving Howe affirms Ralph Ellison's book Invisible Man as a "Negro novel." Revolutionary Implications Resource Type: image-file "Man is But a Worm": The Punch's Almanack of 1882 carried this depiction of evolution in which life emerges from the fractured word "CHAOS" at lower left, evolves from worm to ape to man, and culminates in the figure of Darwin himself as tragic philosopher. Rewards for Revolutionary War Veterans Resource Type: text/legislation North Carolina, like other states, rewarded veterans of the American Revolution with the granting of land and slaves. Robert E. Lee (1807-70) Resource Type: image-file General in chief of the Confederate armies. In 1859, Lee commanded a unit of U.S. marines in the capture of John Brown, an abolitionist who had taken over a U.S. arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now in West Virginia). Lee was a Unionist, but when Virginia (his native state) seceded he followed, and assumed leadership of the Confederate armies in the East. He reinforced Stonewall Jackson's army in the Shenandoah Valley campaign (1862) and resisted Union general George B. McClellan's troops in Richmond shortly thereafter. He fought McClellan to a draw at Antietam, Maryland, in the fall of 1862, lost to the Union army at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania (1863), and surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox, Virginia (1865). Robert F. Kennedy Runs for President Many Americans who supported President Johnson's (1908–73) domestic policy, which included the War on Poverty, were critical of the president's decision to escalate U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. As antiwar sentiment grew, Robert F. Kennedy (1925–68), U.S. senator from New York, announced that he would run against President Johnson for the Democratic nomination for president in 1968. In his speech he addressed the nation's domestic problems and appealed to African Americans, Latinos, women, and the poor. Robert Gould Shaw (1837-63) Resource Type: image-file Abolitionist and Union army colonel. Shaw, born into a white, privileged family in Boston, became an ardent abolitionist. During the Civil War, he assumed leadership of the Massachusetts 54th Regiment, the first African American regiment organized in a free state. Shaw and many of his men were killed during the unit's ill-fated assault on Fort Wagner in Charleston, South Carolina. The battle brought attention to the service of African American soldiers in the war. Shaw and the regiment were memorialized by the sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens in a monument on Boston Common. Roosevelt and Public Life Resource Type: image-file Roosevelt as commander of the first Volunteer U.S. Cavalry during the Spanish-American War. Roosevelt and Public Life Resource Type: image-file Addressing a crowd in Denver. Roosevelt on Physical Health Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document The future president, Theodore Roosevelt, discusses the importance of physical health and strength for American males. Roosevelt on the Conservation Movement Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document In 1907, President Theodore Roosevelt explained in a speech to Congress the purpose of the Conservation Movement and how the government would seek to implement its goals. Sanger on Mammals Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Margaret Sanger became a nationally famous social reformer. Here she teaches children about mammals. Schlesinger on Freedom Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., a noted American historian, wrote this influential book to argue that a rejuvenated faith in democratic ideals and the continuation of New Deal liberalism would safeguard America from the twin threats of totalitarianism and fascism. Science as Surrogate Religion Resource Type: image-file Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), a philosopher and early proponent of pragmatism. Science as Surrogate Religion Resource Type: image-file In photographs, prominent nineteenth-century scientists were often embued with a quasi-religious aura. This photograph of Jollivet Castelot in his laboratory captures the French scientist in a meditative pose (c. 1880). Seal of New Netherlands Resource Type: image/illustration The official seal of New Netherlands was created in 1623. Segregation Resource Type: image-file Sympathy demonstration held in New York City in support of desegregation in the South (1960). Segregation: Boycott Resource Type: image-file African American passengers sit at the front of a bus in Montgomery, Alabama, following a federal-court order desegregating buses. Segregation: Brown v. Board of Education Resource Type: image-file Linda Brown in class at the segregated school she attended before the Supreme Court decided her case and outlawed school segregation. Segregation: Brown v. Board of Education Resource Type: image-file The Supreme Court's decree calling for desegregation "with all deliberate speed," issued a year after the court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. Selma Resource Type: image-file Police swing clubs to break up voting-rights demonstration in Selma, Alabama (March 7, 1965). Selma Resource Type: image-file Lyndon Baines Johnson Selma: Malcolm X Appears Resource Type: image-file Malcolm X addresses civil-rights protesters in Selma (February 4, 1965). Shackles Resource Type: image/photo These iron leg shackles are typical of those used on Southern plantations in the mid-1800s to restrain slaves when they were being moved from one location to another and to punish slaves who attempted escape. Short Historical Notes and Journal Notes of Various Voyages Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document As a prosperous Dutch merchant and skilled sea captain, David de Vries purchased a large estate on present-day Staten Island in 1639. The attacks launched on Native Americans there by Dutch governor Willem Kieft in 1641 led to a terrible, drawn-out war, leading de Vries and others to abandon New Amsterdam for Europe. These excerpts are drawn from his recollections of this period. Slave Life and Culture: Order and Discipline Resource Type: image-file Flogging the Negro. Public whipping of slaves in Lexington, Missouri, in 1856. Illustration from The Suppressed Book about Slavery! (1864), an abolitionist publication. Slave Life and Culture: Slave Communities Resource Type: image-file Slave quarters at the Kingsley plantation on Fort George Island near Jacksonville, Florida. Photograph (c. 1870). Slave Resistance Resource Type: image-file A newspaper advertisement offering a reward for the return of a runaway slave (Virginia Gazette, February 15, 1770). Slave Resistance Resource Type: image-file A slave is burned at the stake after the 1741 slave rebellion in New York City. Slavery and Empire Resource Type: image-file The privateer Jason, built in France in 1747 and later captured by the British, displays the British flag, a symbol of Britain's mastery of the seas and the international trade in slaves in the eighteenth century. Slavery and Empire: A Slave Narrative Resource Type: image-file Olaudah Equiano. Frontispiece, The Interresting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavas Vassa, the African, 3d ed. (1790). Slavery a Positive Good Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document John C. Calhoun was vice president of the United States (1825-32) and U.S. senator from South Carolina for most of the period from 1832 to 1850. Slavery in History: New World Encounters Resource Type: image-file This map from Theatrum orbis terrarum (1570) by Abraham Ortelius depicts what the European explorers understood of their world in the period after Columbus's encounters. The interior of the Americas, compared to that of Africa and Asia, was relatively unknown and, hence, unmapped by famous European cartographers. Slavery in History: New World Encounters Resource Type: image-file This detail of the same map from Theatrum orbis terrarum (1570) depicts the African continent, showing how both the interior and exterior were well known to European travelers, explorers, and cartographers. Notice the detailing of port cities on the west coast as well as the important towns and rivers inland. Slavery in History: The Legacy of 1492 Resource Type: image-file This hand-colored facsimile of an engraving (1564) by Jacques Le Moyne de Morgues shows French settlers arriving on the Florida coast. Slavery in the Americas: Plantation Agriculture Resource Type: image-file Tobacco vendors, most but not all of them English, began advertising on illustrated sheets or cards in the eighteenth century. This "potent herb" label is likely an eighteenth-century illustration. Slavery in the Americas: Plantation Agriculture Resource Type: image-file A Counterblaste to Tobacco by James I, king of England (1604) Slavery in the Americas: Plantation Agriculture Resource Type: image-file This engraving of the Algonquian village of Secotan is based on a watercolor by John White, who had traveled to a part of "Virginia" that is now known as the outer banks of North Carolina (1590). Slave–Sale Broadside Resource Type: image/advertisement A slaveowner advertises his slaves as valuable commodities, identifying each slave. Slaves Picking Cotton Resource Type: image/illustration In this illustration, slaves are shown picking cotton while overseers watch from horseback. Southern Manifesto on Integration Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document U.S. Congressman Walter F. George, a Georgia Democrat, registered his opposition to recent Supreme Court decisions in a speech known as the "Southern Manifesto," which he gave on March 12, 1956. Southern Whites Resource Type: image-file Police officers used attack dogs against civil-rights demonstrators in Birmingham (May 3, 1963). Southern Whites Resource Type: image-file "Bull" Connor, Birmingham sheriff (1963). Southern Whites Resource Type: image-file Interior of the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church after it was bombed, Birmingham (September 1963). Special Message to the Congress: The American Promise Resource Type: text-excerpt Text of President Johnson's speech introducing the voting-rights bill to a Joint Session of Congress (March 15, 1965). Stalin's Interview on Churchill Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document In his critique of Churchill's "Iron Curtain" speech, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin (1879-1953) rebutted the Prime Minister's characterizations of Russian policies in Europe and accused him of proselytizing for war. Striking Shirtwaist-Makers Selling Socialist Newspaper Resource Type: image/photo Many Jewish women were very involved in labor and socialist movements, as seen in this 1910 photograph of striking shirtwaist-makers selling copies of The Call, the New York socialist daily. Stringfellow's Biblical Justification for Slavery Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document In his 1860 book, Thornton Stringfellow explains what he sees as the biblical justification for slavery. Student Information Given to Federal Investigators Resource Type: text/newspaper This article in the Columbia University student newspaper reports that the dean of students provided federal investigators with information about students who had attended the university. Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committe, Women in the Movement, position paper, 1964. The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) played a prominent role in the civil-rights movement. While many women were active in SNCC, some objected that they were being denied leadership positions. Students for a Democratic Society A student organization, Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), met at a United Auto Workers conference in Port Huron, Michigan, in 1962. SDS listed their grievances in the Port Huron Statement, a manifesto whose main author was Tom Hayden (b. 1939). SDS set up branches on college campuses throughout the country and was active in the 1960s through the mid-1970s. Sumner on Social Darwinism Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document William Graham Sumner was an American social scientist influenced by Herbert Spencer and Charles Darwin. Sumner applied Darwin's evolutionary theory to human society. Sunshine and Shadow in New York Resource Type: image/illustration Sunshine and Shadow in New York, a mid-nineteenth-century publication, depicts New York City as two polar societies, one affluent and vibrant, and one poor and diseased. Systems of Slavery: Diversity Resource Type: image-file A British cartographer counters the prevalence of French maps with the British view of the New World. The territory highlighted in yellow shows the French presence on the fur-bearing western and northern frontiers. Virginia and the Chesapeake are also delineated (1755). Systems of Slavery: The North Resource Type: image-file Slave market in the port city of New York (1730). Slavery figured in the economy of the Northern colonies though it was not central to it. Systems of Slavery: The North Resource Type: image-file The Newport Historical Society cannot determine whether the black child depicted in this portrait of the Potter family in Rhode Island is free or slave. The adult male figure here may be the John Potter who manumitted his slaves after becoming a Quaker. The British influence on the fashion and tastes of American colonial elites is conveyed through dress (c.1740-70). Systems of Slavery: The South Resource Type: image-file Mulberry Plantation in South Carolina. The steep roofs are of slave housing, reflecting a form of African architecture (c. 1770). Systems of Slavery: The South Resource Type: image-file The labor-intensive process of rice cultivation on a plantation near Savannah, Georgia (1867). Systems of Slavery: The South Resource Type: image-file Charleston, with its intense maritime activities and fine urban architecture (1737–39). Talking Un-American Blues Resource Type: text/song lyrics The lyrics to a 1952 song about a person summoned to testify before the House Committee on Un-American Activities follow. Television: Sitcoms Resource Type: image-file Audrey Meadows and Jackie Gleason in a promotional portrait for The Honeymooners. Television: Two-Edged Sword Resource Type: image-file Lucille Ball and her husband, Desi Arnaz, costars of I Love Lucy. Television: Two-Edged Sword Resource Type: image-file Edward R. Murrow and Senator Joseph McCarthy on the news show See It Now, during the McCarthy-Army hearings (July 8, 1954). Television: Two-Edged Sword Resource Type: image-file Edward R. Murrow and Senator Joseph McCarthy on the news show See It Now during the McCarthy-Army hearings (July 8, 1954). Tenement Slum Resource Type: image/photo Jacob Riis, a reporter for the New York Sun newspaper, helped raise awareness about the conditions of the urban poor with his 1890 publication, How the Other Half Lives: Studies among the Tenements of New York. This book would later influence Theodore Roosevelt. Testimony of a Female Slave Resource Type: text/biography Harriet A. Jacobs recounts the unique struggles of female slaves in her autobiography, which was later edited by the famous abolitionist, Lydia Maria Child. Text of George F. Kennan's "Long Telegram," February 22, 1946. Resource Type: text-excerpt The "Mudsill" Theory Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Senator James Henry Hammond explains that every society is based on the exploitation of a lower class. To Hammond, the pursuit of civilization is impossible without a class to do the drudge work. The Abolitionist Position: Black Abolitionists' Ideas Resource Type: image-file Black abolitionist Samuel E. Cornish (c. 1795–1858). The Abolitionist Position: Core Concepts Resource Type: image-file The Declaration of Independence. Engraving of the original document (1823). The Affluent Society: Public vs. Private Sectors Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document John Kenneth Galbraith, a prominent Harvard economist, outlined in this article the necessary balance that should exist between the private and public sectors of the American economy. The Affluent Society Galbraith's classic study of 1950s America discusses the irony of the existence of significant poverty in affluent America. The American Century: On American Identity Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Months before the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, Time-Life Inc. founder and publisher Henry R. Luce (1898–1967) paid homage in this landmark speech to what he hailed as the "American Century," lauding the role and obligations the United States must assume as leader of the free world. The American Century: The Socialist Threat Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Months before the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, Time-Life Inc. founder and publisher Henry R. Luce (1898–1967) paid homage in this landmark speech to what he hailed as the "American Century," lauding the role and obligations the United States must assume as leader of the free world. The American Dream Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document A woman who lived in the suburbs in the 1950s recalls the sense of community she and others felt living in their neighborhood. The American Revolution: Black Intellectuals Resource Type: image-file Phillis Wheatley (1753-84) is the first black woman whose poetry is published in the United States and Great Britain. The American Revolution: Black Loyalists Resource Type: image-file The black soldier is a member of the Hessian troops, German mercenary soldiers hired by the British to fight the Americans. The American Revolution: Free Blacks Resource Type: image-file Richard Allen (1760–1831), founder and first bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church. The American Revolution: Free Blacks Resource Type: image-file Liberty Displaying the Arts and Sciences, a painting by Samuel Jennings (1792). Liberty personified as a benevolent woman, holds forth the promise of freedom to well-dressed blacks, kneeling and praying. The American Revolution: Slavery Expands Resource Type: image-file Alexander Hamilton (1755-1804) The Bank of New York, 1789 Resource Type: image/other As George Washington's secretary of the treasury, Alexander Hamilton (c.1755–1804) secured the first loan for the United States government from the Bank of New York, still the oldest bank in the country. With the princely sum of $200,000, Hamilton oversaw payment of the war debts accrued by the various states and the redemption of all war-era notes at face value. The Battle of Brooklyn Resource Type: image/map New York City was one of the first military theaters of the American Revolution (1775–83), in the present-day borough of Brooklyn. During the summer of 1776, 32,000 British troops and 88 frigates of the British navy faced down George Washington (1732–99) and his unruly band of 20,000 colonials. By early September, Washington had abandoned New York and retreated across the Hudson River to New Jersey. This map illustrates Washington's path of retreat (represented by the blue lines) in the face of a superior British force (represented by the red lines). The Building of an African American Church Resource Type: text/newspaper This newspaper article describes the laying of the cornerstone of the First African Methodist Episcopal Church on Manhattan's present-day Upper West Side. The Buttonwood Agreement Resource Type: text/legislation According to legend, 24 financiers met under a buttonwood tree on Wall Street and agreed to charge a commission no less than 0.25%. This agreement was the basis for the New York Stock Exchange. The Castello Plan Resource Type: image/map This drawing depicts the Dutch settlement at New Amsterdam in 1660 along the southern tip of present-day Manhattan Island. The Cholera Epidemic Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Many of New York's Protestant leaders interpreted the 1832 cholera epidemic as proof of God's displeasure with contemporary morality. The Cold War: Containment Resource Type: image-file The Cold War: the Soviet Union Resource Type: image-file Dean Acheson in 1945. The Cold War: The Soviet Union Resource Type: image-file Charles Bohlen (1904–74), (with hand on chin, standing behind President Harry Truman) was a diplomat and Soviet expert in the State Department. Bohlen was outspoken in his warnings about the Soviet Union's intentions after World War II. He argued that the Soviet regime was paranoid and despotic, like Nazi Germany, and could not be trusted. His grim assessment of the Soviet Union was not widely accepted at first, but eventually it came to prevail. It led to the policy of containment, an underpinning of U.S. foreign policy during the Cold War. The Cold War: The Soviet Union Resource Type: image-file William Bullitt (1891–1967), a U.S. ambassador to the Soviet Union in the 1930s, was a leading representative of the pessimistic view of the Soviet regime after World War II. He thought the Soviet Union, led by Stalin, was morally equivalent to Nazi Germany and must be resisted. Not widely shared at first, this opinion eventually found acceptance throughout the U.S. government and helped shape the policy of containment during the Cold War. The Cold War: The Soviet Union Resource Type: image-file Josef Stalin (1879–1953), leader of the Soviet Union for more than thirty years, molded the characteristic features of the Soviet regime and to a large degree shaped East-West relations after World War II. An important ally of the United States during World War II, he was nevertheless a despotic ruler. After the war, the West, increasingly alarmed by his tyranny and brutality, which prompted comparisons to Hitler's rule in Nazi Germany, was alienated on the diplomatic front by conflicts with Stalin's over the extent of Soviet influence. Specifically, Stalin clashed with President Truman over the division of Germany into the democratic western sector and the communist eastern sector. Struggles also emerged in Turkey and Greece. The increasing hostility between Stalin and the West developed into the Cold War. The Conservative View Resource Type: image-file The sociologist William Graham Sumner (1840-1910). The Constitution: Slavery Defended Resource Type: image-file George Washington presiding at the signing of the new Constitution at the second Constitutional Convention, September 17, 1787. The Constitution and Slavery Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document The Constitution's clauses relating to slavery did not mention the word "slavery.” The Constitution of the United States Resource Type: text/legislation The Constitution was written in 1787 by the delegates to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, who had gathered to revise the Articles of Confederation, which had been drafted after the Revolutionary War. This is a complete transcription of the Constitution in its original form. Items that are italicized have since been amended or superseded. The Cotton Kingdom: The Economics of Cotton Resource Type: image-file Bales of cotton on the docks of Charleston, South Carolina, ready for shipping to textile mills of New England, Britain, or other countries. The Cotton Kingdom: The Industrial Revolution Resource Type: image-file Power loom weaving in a New England textile factory. The leather belts transmitted power from a central waterwheel or a steam engine. The Cotton Kingdom: The Industrial Revolution Resource Type: image-file In 1793, while working as a tutor on a Georgia plantation, Whitney came up with the idea of removing the seeds from cotton by machine. Though every schoolchild recalls "Eli Whitney and the cotton gin," few realize the stark innovation that such a machine was. The gin (short for engine) in essence made it possible for cotton to become "king," as it picked approximately 50 times more cotton seeds per day than any enslaved worker could. Cotton prices soared over time and made the South a world leader in supplying cotton. The Cotton Kingdom: The Industrial Revolution Resource Type: image-file The First Cotton-Gin. Wood engraving by William L. Sheppard in Harper's Weekly (December 18, 1869). The Declaration of Independence Resource Type: text/proclamation In the Declaration of Independence, the Continental Congress asserted American independence from Britain and justified its decision to do so by citing a series of alleged violations of American rights. The Divorce of Theory and Practice Resource Type: image-file Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826). The Divorce of Theory and Practice Resource Type: image-file George Santayana (1863-1952). The Doctrine of Separate Spheres Resource Type: image-file Men's world: the Chicago Board of Trade, c. 1900. The Doctrine of Separate Spheres Resource Type: image-file Women's world: the parlor. The Draft Riots Resource Type: image-file Recruiting station for the Union Army, in City Hall Park (1864). The Draft Riots Resource Type: image-file The Effects of Public Parks Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document As greater numbers of middle- and upper-class New Yorkers became aware of the public health dangers posed by slum neighborhoods, their spokesmen argued for the salubrious benefits of public parks. The Emergence of a Republican Majority Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Kevin Phillips, a writer and commentator who began his career as an advisor to Richard M. Nixon, discusses the "southern strategy" of electing Republicans to national office. The End of Slavery Resource Type: image-file General Sherman's troops march through Washington, D.C., during the grand review of the national armies (May 1865). The Expansion Issue: Political Polarization Resource Type: image-file By 1856 the debate over slavery had divided the nation politically. This Republican campaign chart, with Fremont pictured at the top, illustrates the division between free and slave states and compares the two regions in several categories, including industry and education. The Expansion Issue: The Kansas-Nebraska Act Resource Type: image-file Stephen A. Douglas (1813–1861). The Federalist Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document As a New York delegate to the Constitutional Convention of 1787, Alexander Hamilton (c. 1755–1804) wrote, along with fellow New Yorker John Jay (1745–1829) and Virginia's James Madison (1751–1836), a series of 85 essays to promote the ratification of the Constitution—many of which were published in the newspapers of New York and other states. Published as a book in 1788, The Federalist defended the establishment of a strong central government, as designed by the Constitution. The following letters were written by Alexander Hamilton in 1787 and 1788. The Feminine Mystique Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Founder of the National Organization for Women (NOW), Betty Friedan wrote this influential treatise critiquing the loneliness and dissatisfaction felt by many suburban housewives in postwar America. The First Loan Fund Recipient Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Frances Johnson was the first recipient of a college loan from a branch of the American Association of University Women. This enabled her to attend Cornell University. She is discussed in the minutes of the branch, published in 1925. The Five Points Slum Resource Type: image/illustration Five Points, the great slum of antebellum New York, was located at the convergence of Worth, Baxter, and Park Streets in present-day lower Manhattan. Its residents suffered terribly during the cholera epidemic of 1832. The Frontier in American History Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document After the 1890 census, the historian Frederick Jackson Turner wrote an essay on the role of the American frontier in shaping the American character. The G.I. Bill Resource Type: text/legislation In his message to Congress in 1944, President Roosevelt (1882–1945) urged passage of the Servicemen's Readjustment Act to extend economic and educational assistance to the returning veterans of World War II. This legislation became the basis for the "G.I. Bill of Rights." The Great Society Resource Type: image-file President Johnson visits a resident of Appalachia during his poverty tour (1964). The Great Society Resource Type: image-file Head Start class in the Bronx, New York City (1969). The Great Society: A Social Crusade Resource Type: image-file The Great Society: A Social Crusade Resource Type: text-excerpt President Johnson's Inaugural Address (1965). The Great Society: The War on Poverty Resource Type: image-file Poster for the Job Corps program of the Office of Economic Opportunity (c. 1970). The Higher Criticism Resource Type: image-file Nineteenth-century Christians supported missionary efforts throughout the world. Missionaries were often forced to confront a diversity of value systems, which challenged their own assumptions about the universality of Protestant, Victorian morals. The House Un-American Activities Committee Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document The House Un-American Activities Committee gained notoriety during the postwar era for its allegations of communist subversion in the federal government and within key industries, including the motion picture industry. The career of Richard M. Nixon (1913–94) was launched by his role as a member of the committee. The Impact of The Origin of Species Resource Type: image-file What struck the popular imagination most forcefully was Darwin's argument that humans and apes shared a common ancestry, and idea often simplified into the equation of man and monkey. This charicature of Charles Darwin appeared in the London Sketch Book (c.1860). The Impact of The Origin of Species Resource Type: image-file This cartoon by humorist Thomas Nast appeared in Harper's Weekly (August 19, 1871). Titled "Mr Bergh to the Rescue," the caption reads: "THE DEFRAUDED GORILLA: 'That Man wants to claim my Pedigree. He says he is one of my Descendents.' MR. BERGH: 'Now, MR. DARWIN, how could you insult him so?'" The Impact of The Origin of Species Resource Type: image-file Darwinism was charicatured not only in the press but in other forms of popular culture as well. The refrain of this novelty song with music by "O'Rangoutang" is "It certainly is most absurd/ The fact can never be!/ My great grand daddy never was/ A 'Monkey' up a tree" (1874). The Iron Curtain Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document At Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, the former British Prime Minister Winston S. Churchill (1874–1965) spoke ominously in 1946 of the "iron curtain" that divided Europe after the end of World War II, and urged the United States to work vigorously with the United Nations to negotiate a Soviet withdrawal from eastern Europe. The Long Telegram Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document In 1946, George F. Kennan, an expert in Russian history and a State Department official, penned this 8,000 word telegram from Moscow in what has been described as a "foundational text" of the Cold War and America's emerging policy of containment. The Memoirs of John Quincy Adams Resource Type: text/biography In March of 1820, shortly after Congress had passed the Missouri Compromise, John Quincy Adams, then secretary of state, and John Calhoun, then secretary of war, discussed the institution of slavery. Calhoun, a native of South Carolina, explained the role of slavery in Southern society. The Morality of Science Resource Type: image-file Scientific collaboration: British physicist Sir Oliver Lodge at work in his laboratory with two colleagues (c. 1892). The New Framework Resource Type: image-file Still from In Our Hands, Part 2: What We Have (1950). The New Framework: Postwar Domestic Order Resource Type: image-file Veterans sign up for GI Bill programs. The New Framework: The Full Employment Bill Resource Type: image-file Still from In Our Hands, Part 2: What We Have (1950). The Organization Man Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document William Whyte discusses the institutionalized and bureaucratized aspects of life in America. The Other America Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document With this book, writer and social activist Michael Harrington helped launch the New Left movement of the 1960s and its concerns about American poverty and social injustice. The Other America Michael Harrington's book The Other America (1962) exposed to many Americans the persistence of poverty in the United States at a time when the country as a whole was enjoying unprecedented prosperity. The Physical World Transformed Resource Type: image-file The Flatiron Building under construction (c.1902). The Physical World Transformed Resource Type: image-file Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge (1875). The Physical World Transformed Resource Type: image-file Thomas Edison in his workshop, as depicted on the front page of Harper's Weekly (August 2, 1879) The Political Economist and the Tramp Resource Type: text/fiction In this poem, Phillips Thompson pokes fun at certain notions of Social Darwinism. The Politics of Freedom Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., a noted American historian, wrote this influential book to argue that a rejuvenated faith in democratic ideals and the continuation of New Deal liberalism would safeguard America from the twin threats of totalitarianism and fascism. The Principles of Scientific Management Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Frederick W. Taylor was a mechanical engineer who wrote extensively about scientific management, a method of managing groups of people based on scientific principles, as part of progressive notions of efficiency. His ideas influenced business management theory in America and around the world. The Principles of Scientific Management is a collection of his essays published in 1911. The Progressive View Resource Type: image-file The sociologist Lester Frank Ward (1841-1913). The Rebel Girl Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Joe Hill, lyricist and labor activist, wrote songs for the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), including this tribute to the women involved in the IWW. The Red Scare Resource Type: image-file U.S. Army poster from the mid-1950s. The Red Scare: Alger Hiss Resource Type: image-file Richard M. Nixon (1913–94), 37th president of the United States, gained national prominence during the Red Scare of the early 1950s. Elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 after a campaign in which he accused his Democratic opponent of being soft on communism, Nixon went on to become a leader of Congressional investigations into communist activities in the United States. In particular, Nixon won national attention for his role in the investigation that the House Un-American Activities Committee conducted of Alger Hiss, an American who was alleged to have spied for the Soviets. The Red Scare: A Totalitarian Nightmare Resource Type: image-file Annie Lee Moss, a Pentagon worker whom Joseph McCarthy accused of being a communist, with her lawyer in 1954. McCarthy identified Moss as a code clerk who dealt with secret messages but in fact she worked in the cafeteria. Her case received national attention when Edward R. Murrow featured it in his CBS documentary series See It Now. The Red Scare: A Totalitarian Nightmare Resource Type: image-file Seven members of the "Hollywood Ten" arrive at U.S. Federal Court in Washington, D.C., on June 22, 1950, to face charges of contempt. From left to right: Samuel Ornitz, Ring Lardner Jr., Albert Maltz, Alvah Bessie, Lester Cole, Herbert Biberman, and Edward Dmytryk. The Red Scare: A Totalitarian Nightmare Resource Type: image-file Two other members of the legendary "Hollywood Ten" John Howard Lawson (left) and Dalton Trumbo enter van to be taken to DC jail after they were sentenced to one year in jail and fined $1,000 each for contempt of court. The Red Scare: Klaus Fuchs Resource Type: image-file Photograph of British atomic scientist Klaus Fuchs that was used as an exhibit during the Rosenberg trial. The Red Scare: Klaus Fuchs Resource Type: image-file The Red Scare: The Rosenbergs Resource Type: image-file Police photos of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. The Red Scare: The Rosenbergs Resource Type: image-file Sketch used as evidence in the Rosenberg trial. The Red Scare: The Rosenbergs Resource Type: image-file Ethel and Julius Rosenberg leaving the U.S. Courthouse in New York City after being found guilty (1951). The Red Scare: The Rosenbergs Resource Type: image-file Demonstrators gather at Pennsylvania Station in New York City on June 18, 1953, to travel to Washington, D.C., for a protest against the death sentence of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. The Red Scare: The Rosenbergs Resource Type: image-file Ethel Rosenberg arriving at Sing Sing Prison on April 11, 1951, following her death sentence. The Rise of Abolition: An Age of Reform Resource Type: image-file Abolitionist Wendell Phillips (1811–84) speaking on the Boston Common against the fugitive-slave law (1851). The Rise of Abolition: An Age of Reform Resource Type: image-file A map of the west coast of Africa, including the colony of Liberia, in 1830. The Rise of Abolition: Early Abolitionist Leaders Resource Type: image-file Theodore Weld at age 41 (1844). The Rise of Abolition: The Appeal To Public Opinion Resource Type: image-file Harriet Beecher Stowe (1811–96). The Road to Emancipation: Changes in Strategy Resource Type: text-excerpt The Road to Emancipation: Characteristics Resource Type: image-file The Road to Emancipation: Lincoln's Early Actions Resource Type: image-file President Abraham Lincoln. The Road To War: The Dred Scott Decision Resource Type: image-file Dred Scott. Wood engraving (1887). The Search for New Identities Resource Type: image-file Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1860-1935), c. 1905. The Second Confiscation Act Resource Type: text/legislation The U.S. Congress passsed legislation to inhibit treason against the Union. The Silent Majority In 1970, Time magazine named "the Middle Americans" as Man and Woman of the Year. The Suburban Community Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document This chart indicates the lifestyle-related reasons that Americans gave for moving to the suburbs in the 1950s. The Suburbs: Conformity and Isolation Resource Type: image-file Ad describes the rush by veterans to buy homes in Levittown, N.Y. The Suburbs: Conformity and Isolation Resource Type: image-file Customers wait in line to buy houses in Levittown, N.Y. The Suburbs: Conformity and Isolation Resource Type: image-file Families move into Levittown, N.Y. The Suburbs: Conformity and Isolation Resource Type: image-file Welcome wagon offers gifts from local merchants to new arrivals in Levittown, N.Y. The Suburbs: Conformity and Isolation Resource Type: image-file Cape Cod–style houses in Levittown, N.Y. The Suburbs: Conformity and Isolation Resource Type: image-file Dance rehearsal in Levittown, N.Y. (1950). The Suburbs: Conformity and Isolation Resource Type: image-file Square dancers celebrate Levittown's 10th anniversary. The Suburbs: Homogenity Resource Type: image-file Aerial view of Levittown, N.Y. The Suburbs: Homogenity Resource Type: image-file Ad for Levittown, N.Y. The Tension Between Faith and Science Resource Type: image-file Knowledge through revelation: evangelist Dwight Moody preaching (1876). The Tension Between Faith and Science Resource Type: image-file Knowledge through verification: French chemist Louis Pasteur at work (c. 1870). The Thirteenth Amendment Resource Type: text/legislation The Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is one of the legacies of the Civil War. The Threat of Change Resource Type: image-file Middle-class family, c. 1865: a long-unquestioned configuration. The Triangular Trades: Continuity of Slavery Resource Type: image-file The king of Congo's residence, where people gathering water to be carried up to the city that surrounds the king's dwelling illustrate a form of slavery that existed in Africa (mid-eighteenth century). The Triangular Trades: The Slave Gun Cycle Resource Type: image-file The king of Dahomey leading armed women to war (1793). The Triangular Trades: The Slave Gun Cycle Resource Type: image-file The king of Dahomey with soldiers and members of his court receiving British visitors (1793). The Triangular Trades: The Slave Gun Cycle Resource Type: image-file Europeans buying slaves on the African coast (1729). The Victorian Mind Resource Type: image-file Queen Victoria in the fiftieth year of her reign. The Victorian Mind Resource Type: image-file Glass cases (Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford) typical of nineteenth-century museums. The Warfare of Science with Theology Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Andrew D. White was an American educator who wrote about the controversial reactions to Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species in his book, A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom, published in 1896. The White Man's Burden Resource Type: image/cartoon This cartoon, referring to Rudyard Kipling's poem of the same name, was published as the Spanish-American War ended and the insurrection in the Philippines against the Americans began. The Yellow Wall Paper Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Charlotte Perkins Gilman was a well-educated American woman who became depressed after her marriage in 1884. Diagnosed with neurasthenia and prescribed the "rest-cure,"she later wrote about her experience in The Yellow Wall Paper, published in 1899. The Younger Generation's Response Resource Type: image-file Victorian style: drawing room of W. C. Whitney residence, 1899. Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) Resource Type: image-file Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) expressed his views on blacks and slavery in his book Notes on the State of Virginia, first published in 1781 with corrections and additions published in 1782. The conflicts between Jefferson's private (if inconsistent) somewhat favorable view of blacks and his public assertions and actions bedevil his reputation as a founding father. In 1800 he became the third president of the United States. To Fulfill These Rights Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document President Lyndon Baines Johnson (1908–73) made this landmark speech to students at Howard University in Washington, D.C., a historically black institution, to outline the Great Society program. Tontine Building, Wall Street Resource Type: image/other Beginning in 1793, the Tontine Coffee House on Wall Street served as the headquarters of New York's first stock exchange, following the exchange's organization by the Buttonwood Agreement in 1792. Truman Doctrine Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Declaring that the United States must "assist free peoples to work out their own destinies in their own way," President Truman (1884–1972) asked Congress in 1947 to authorize $400 million in military assistance to Greece where communist guerillas—thought to be supported by Moscow—threatened its democratic government. Turner and the End of the Frontier Resource Type: image-file The Columbian Exposition of 1893. Turner and the End of the Frontier Resource Type: image-file Turner and the End of the Frontier Resource Type: image-file Twenty Years at Hull House Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Jane Addams, a leading social worker during the Progressive Era, founded the Hull House settlement for immigrants in Chicago in 1889. She wrote about her experiences there in Twenty Years at Hull House, published in 1910. U.S. Troops and Battle Deaths in Vietnam This table shows the numbers of U.S. troops and of battle deaths in Vietnam in the period 1965 through 1972. Ulysses S. Grant (1822-85) Resource Type: image-file Commander in chief of the Union army and 18th president of the United States. Grant won an early victory for the Union at Shiloh, Tennessee (1862), but at the cost of 10,000 casualties. The engagement sealed Grant's military partnership with General William Sherman, a partnership that was essential to the Union's ultimate victory. Grant's reputation as a strategist was solidified during the Vicksburg campaign (1862–63). Despite formidable Confederate defenses, his troops captured Vicksburg, Mississippi, and, with it, control of the Mississippi River; this was a crucial turning point in the war. Grant's victory at Chattanooga, Tennessee (1863), led President Lincoln to promote him to commander in chief (1864). General Robert E. Lee of the Confederate armies surrendered to Grant at Appomattox, Virginia (1865). Union Must and Shall Be Preserved Resource Type: image/illustration A campaign banner for the Republican ticket in 1860. United States Objectives and Programs for National Security Resource Type: text/legislation This 1950 memo, prepared for President Truman (1884–1972) by his National Security Council, delineates in stark terms the tenets of America's Cold War policy of Soviet containment. Vermont's Constitution, 1777 Resource Type: text/legislation The 1777 Vermont constitution included a clause that allowed for gradual emancipation. Veterans Sign Up for G.I. Bill Programs Resource Type: image/photo Hailed as one of the most significant pieces of legislation passed in the twentieth century, the “G.I. Bill of Rights” helped shore up the American economy by helping returning veterans launch new lives in the civilian sector. This photograph was taken at the New York regional office of the Veterans Administration, on the last day to file papers for educational courses. View of Central Park Resource Type: image/painting George Loring Brown, a painter of the Hudson River School, painted this idyllic view of Central Park during the American Civil War. Virginia Slave Law Resource Type: text/legislation In 1705, Virginia singled out people of African descent and Native Americans as slaves. Virginia Slave Law: A Slave Woman's Offspring Resource Type: text/legislation In 1662, Virginia made the status of slaves hereditary; a slave woman's offspring became the property of her master. Virginia Slave Law: Killing a Slave Resource Type: text/legislation During the 1660s and 1670s, Maryland and Virginia established slave codes. Virginia Slave Law: Prohibition Against Arms Resource Type: text/legislation Prior to the 1660s and the 1670s, the status of black people in the Southern colonies was ambiguous. During the 1660s and 1670s, Maryland and Virginia established slave codes that singled out people of African descent as slaves and made the status of slaves hereditary. Wallace Letter to Truman Resource Type: text/letter Commerce Secretary Henry Wallace, a former vice president under President Roosevelt, expressed his alarm at the military buildup pursued by President Truman (1884–1972) after the end of World War II, and in this letter to the president, pleaded with him to attempt a non-belligerent dialogue with the Soviet Union. Washington's Inauguration, 1789 Resource Type: image/illustration This painting captures the momentous occasion of George Washington's (1732-99) inauguration as the first President of the United States. The swearing-in ceremony took place on the balcony of Federal Hall in lower Manhattan on April 30, 1789. New York City remained the nation's capital until 1790. Water Resource Type: image-file The earth appears blue because so much of it is water. Wealth in Water Resource Type: image-file New York watershed map. Wealth in Water Resource Type: image-file Water-main break in New York (1998). What Happened in White America? Resource Type: image-file Students at Columbia University protest the war in Vietnam (1967). Who's Who Resource Type: image-file John Bell (1797–1869). Who's Who Resource Type: image-file John Brown (1800–59). Who's Who Resource Type: image-file John C. Breckinridge (1821–75). Who's Who Resource Type: image-file James Buchanan (1791–1868). Who's Who Resource Type: image-file Lydia Maria Child (1802–80). Who's Who Resource Type: image-file Jefferson Davis (1808–1889). Who's Who Resource Type: image-file Frederick Douglass (1817?/1818?–1895). Who's Who Resource Type: image-file John C. Frémont (1813–90). Who's Who Resource Type: image-file William Lloyd Garrison (1805–79), at the age of 30. Who's Who Resource Type: image-file Sarah Moore Grimké (1792–1873), at about the age of 50. Who's Who Resource Type: image-file Angelina Emily Grimké (1805–79), at about the age of 39. Who's Who Resource Type: image-file Abraham Lincoln (1809–65), two weeks before the final Lincoln-Douglas debate (October 1, 1858). Who's Who Resource Type: image-file Dred Scott (1795–1858). Why the Farmers Revolted Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document This article appeared in the magazine Forum in 1893, during a time when many American farmers were facing great distress. William Lloyd Garrison on Abolitionism Resource Type: text/other non-fiction document Before 1830 most abolitionists believed in the concept of colonization, but after that time, the abolitionist movement was transformed. William Tecumseh Sherman (1820-91) Resource Type: image-file Union general. Sherman, along with other Union commanders, suffered defeat at the first battle at Bull Run (or Manassas, 1861), but he later formed a wartime partnership with General Ulysses S. Grant that worked to both men's advantage. Sherman distinguished himself in military engagements at Shiloh and in Memphis (both in 1862). When Grant became commander in chief of the Union armies, Sherman succeeded him as supreme commander in the West (1864). Sherman is best known for his destructive march from Atlanta to the sea (1864). Women in SNCC The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) played a prominent role in the civil-rights movement. While many women were active in SNCC, some objected that they were being denied leadership positions. Woolworth Counter Strike Resource Type: image/photo In 1960, students at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical College, a historically black institution, defied segregation by sitting at the luncheon counter of the F.W. Woolworth store in Greensboro. Young Americans for Freedom In 1960, at the home of William F. Buckley Jr. (b. 1925) in Sharon, Connecticut, about 90 young people gathered to found Young Americans for Freedom. They adopted a mission statement, excerpted below, defining what they considered the responsibilities they bore as the "youth of America."

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